FYBA – Ancillary English SEM – II-munotes

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1Unit-1
LITERARY TERMS:TYPES OF VERSES
Unit Structure
1.0 Objective
1.1 Introduction
.1.2 Types of Verse
1.2.1. Lyric
1.2.2.Elegy
1.2.3.Dramatic Monologue
1.2.4.Sonnet
1.2.5.Ballad
1.2.6.Epic
1.2.7.Satire
1.2.8.Ode
1.3. Let’s Sum Up
1.4 Important Questions
1.0OBJECTIVE S
The present unit is a continuation of the previous two on
literary terms. Here the learners shall be introduced to the literary
genre of Poetry, through its types and variants.
1.1INTRODUCTION
Earlier poetry or a collection of poems/verses would have
been identified as that which could be sung. Its recitation would
have been accompanied by musical instruments such as the ‘lyre’.
Its language thus would have been different from ‘prose’. Its
subjects predominantly would have been evocative of emotions
such as Nature, God, Love or even Death.
Yet over the years, the concept and understanding of poetry
has undergone many modifications and has now become flexible
enough to include forms that may use rhymes or may not. It can
have different kinds of rhythms or cadences. The language
may/may not be distinctly different from common speech. The
source can be real or fictitious/imaginative. The text can be broken
into lines and stanzas but not necessarily. The only commonalitymunotes.in

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2perhaps will be its evocative aspect. That poetry touches a deeper
chord within, has remained its lasting quality. This however does
not mean that it is not an intellectual pursuit too. It can very well be
used as a telling commentary upon the society and its ways.
Since the essence of ‘poetr y’ eludes a fixed definition, it can
best be studied by analysing its different types.
1.2TYPES OF VERSE
1.2.1 Lyric
Lyric poetry is one of the oldest forms of poetry. Quite
literarily, it used to be a song that would be sung to the
accompaniment of a stringed musical instrument called the lyre.
The lyric is of a Greek origin, its foremost characteristic is that
it is written in first person. It is mostly non narrative and often only
expresses a mood, sentiment or a particular point of view of the
narrator. It is not necessary that the narrator is the poet
himself/herself. The narrator can be a character real or concocted
by the poet.
Aristotle has also stressed on the particular aspect of the lyric
that it is e ssentially the utterance of a single speaker. In those days,
it was also known as ‘melic’ poetry.
During the Roman period the lyric became a form more to be read/
recited than sung. After the Romans, medieval France and
Germany brought about a revival in t he lyric form. It reached its
culmination through the Italian poets. By the time the lyric reached
the British shores, it had gathered a wider inclusivism sense,
encompassing the religious hymns, the sonnets and other love
songs, odes and elegies.
The med ieval English song:
“Summer is icumen in,
Lhude sing cuccu”
(Summer is coming, Loud sing Cuckoo)
It is an early example of the lyric. Later, English lyric poetry
blossomed during the Elizabethan period with the popular belief
that:
“England, Merry Engla nd, was a nest of singing birds.”
Among these, Robert Southwell’s lyrics are steeped in
religious sentiment. On the other hand those which are sensuous
and bordering on erotic are Shakespeare’s “Venus and Adonis”,
Marlowe’s “Hero and Leander”, Marston’s “ Pygmalion” and
Drayton’s “The Barons Wars”. The themes sometimes includedmunotes.in

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3even war and patriotism. All these lyrics were compiled into “Song
Books”. Some of these were Tottel’s “Miscellany” which had songs
by Wyatt and Surrey; Davidson’s “Poetic Rhapsody” was the last of
the famous ones.
In the 17th century metaphysical poets from John Donne to
Andrew Marvell wrote lyrical verses. Donne writes in one of his
Songs:
Go and catch a falling star,
Get with child a mandrake root,
Tell me where all past years ar e,
Or who cleft the devil’s foot,
Teach me to hear mermaids singing,
Or to keep off envy’s stinging
And find/ what wind serves to advance an honest mind.
The metaphysical poets were followed by William Cowper,
Thomas Gray and Oliver Goldsmith. Robert Burns, the precursor to
Romanticism, too wrote some very popular lyrical poems.
Romanticism as a literary movement itself thrived in the lyrical form.
All the Romantics from Wordsworth to Byron were masters of the
lyric.
In the 20th century, the Georgian poets such as A.E.
Housman, Walter de la Mare and Edmund Blunden kept it alive.
Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize for the self -translation of
his lyrica l verses, ‘Gitanjali’.
1.2.2Elegy
In the true sense an elegy is a lament. It emphasises the
uncertainty of human life and hence the unpredictable nature of
death. In the 17th century, the term elegy was formalised to
represent:
“…a sustained lament in ve rse at the death of a particular person,
usually ending in a consolation”.
Such an elegy is also known as a monody. The best example
of this is John Milton’s ‘Lycidas’. Through the poem Milton
expresses his sorrow upon the death of a dear learned friend.
Since then, others too have tried their hand at this poetic form.
Thomas Gray composed, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”
in 1757. P.B. Shelley wrote “Adonais” in 1821. Lord Alfred
Tennyson gave English literature a classic long elegy through his
“InMemoriam” (1850). When the Nobel laureate W.B.Yeats died,
W.H. Auden felt it necessary to write “In memory of W.B.
Yeats”(1940).munotes.in

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4Some elegies took up existing pastoral conventions and
represented the departed soul as a shepherd. “Lycidas”, “Adonais”
and M athew Arnold’s “Thyrsis” etc. are ‘Pastoral elegies’. These
have a standard structure:
Invocation of the muse/s
Procession of mourners
Nature as a mourner
The poet gives vent to his/her sorrow and frustration by even
accusing the ‘Super -natural powers’ of negligence and
insensitivity;
“… Come to pluck your barriers harsh and crude,
And with forced fingers rude
Shatter your leaves before the mellowing year”
-Lycidas, John Milton
Eventually the pastoral elegy ends in a consolation. This is
based on t he belief that “death is an entry to a higher life.”
1.2.3Dramatic Monologue
A Monologue is loosely a literary piece which has only a single
speaker. Yet, it is different from the soliloquy popularised in drama.
The soliloquy is the voicing out aloud of a character’s thoughts. On
the other hand, the ‘Dramatic Monologue’ has implied listener/s.
The speaker directly addresses the listener/s, asks them questions,
instructs them etc. Furthermore, the speaker also makes the reader
aware of the listener/s’ response. For e.g. in Robert Browning’s “My
Last Duchess”, the speaker is the Duke of Ferrara and the listener
is a messenger from the Count of Tyrol. The listener is looking at a
covered painting and wondering about it. The Duke al lows the
messenger to see that it is a portrait of his last Duchess. He tells
the messenger that he should consider himself lucky that he got a
chance to see the Duchess’s portrait.
The reason this kind of poetry is called a ‘Dramatic
Monologue’ is a subj ect of much debate. Yet, the popular notion is
that it takes place at a time in the speaker’s life that will bring about
a ‘dramatic’ change. Hence it is called a ‘Dramatic Monologue’. For
example, “The Patriot” by Robert Browning, has a speaker who is
being taken to the gallous. Like Robert Browning, his Victorian
fellow poets, Lord Alfred Tennyson and Mathew Arnold too were
masters of the Dramatic Monologue. Tennyson is famous for his
“Ulysses “and “Tithonus” whereas Mathew Arnold has given the
unforgetta ble “Dover Beach”;
“The sea is calm to -night.
The tide is full, the moon lies fair…
Come to the window, sweet is the night air!”munotes.in

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5The Dramatic Monologue form has enticed generations of
poets since considered to be among the very first modernist
creations, T.S. Eliot’s “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” begins
in a typical dramatic monologue manner:
“Let us go then, you and I,”
The Indian modernist poet Nissim Ezekiel too has dabbled
with the form, in his poems such as “The Professor”;
“How many issues you have? Three?
That is good. These are days of planning.”
1.2.4Sonnet
As seen earlier, sonnet is a form of lyric. It is a short lyric of
exactly fourteen lines. Often, it used to have a very complicated
rhyme scheme which was considered to be a necessity to enhance
the lyrical quality. The subject matter of the early Sonnet was “love’
and the form gained its popularity as ‘love poems’ or ‘love songs’. It
is considered to be Italian in origin. The poet Petrarch gave wide
acclaim and hence it became known as t he Petrarchan sonnet. He
divided the fourteen lines into as ‘octave’ of eight lines and a
‘sestet’ of six lines. There comes a distinct shift in the speaker’s
thought process when the octave end and sestet begins. The
Petrarch Sonnet was made more versatil eb yl a t t e rd a yp o e t sw h o
used it to address different subjects. The 19th century poet
H.L.V.Deroziogives it a patriotic form in his “To India -My Native
Land”;
“My country!In thy days of glory past
Are halo circled round thy brow”
The Sonnet was first brought into the English language in the
16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt. It later changed hands from Earl
of Surrey to Sir Philip Sidney, Edmund Spenser etc. and finally to
Shakespeare. The restrictive form of the Petrarchan sonnet was
rejected by Shakes peare. He gave it a new structure of three
‘quatrains’ (4line stanza) and a couplet. The 16th century English
Sonnets or Elizabethan Sonnets are often seen in the form of
‘Sonnet Sequences’ for e.g. Sidney’s “Astrophel and Stella”,
Spenser’s “Amoretti" etc .H e r et o ot h et h e m eo fl o v ed o m i n a t e st h e
preceding;
“Leaves, lines and rhymes, seek her to please alone,
Whom if ye please, I care for other none.”
-Amoretti Edmund Spenser.
The sonnet was infused with new life and vi gour by G.M.
Hopkins in the 19th century. He lent in the ‘sprung rhythm’ thatmunotes.in

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6distinguished it from the earlier variants. Since the form is revisited
often by the new literati; Wendy Cope, Simon Armitage, Andrew
Motion’s “Love Sonnets for 21st century” to site a few.
1.2.5 Ballad
A Ballad is a song that tells a story. In short, it is a kind of
narrative verse. It belongs to the Folk tradition and it served the
dual purpose of entertaining the audience as well as acting as a
loose historical records.
Durin g the medieval times there were religious ballads such
as the “Cherry tree ballad”. Sometimes they dealt with religious
themes so flippantly that they were almost blasphemous. Yet, the
most common themes of ballads were love and bravery. The ballad
as a fo rm often begins in ‘media res’ i.e. in the middle of the story.
Its language is simple and it is often written in quatrains i.e. four line
stanzas. The rhyme scheme is commonly ‘abcb’. For e.g. the ballad
of “The Douglas Tragedy” begins with:
“Rise up, ri se up, my seven bold sons,
And put on your armour so bright,
And take better care of your youngest sister,
For your eldest away the last night.”
Eventually ballads were written and even printed. In the 16th
century, ballads printed on broadsheets became very popular and
were called ‘the broadside ballads.’ They would be based on a
particular incident, humorous and some were even satirical in
nature. Thomas Percy, Robert Harley, Francis James Child etc.
were the early collectors of ballads. Percy’s “Reliqu es of Ancient
Poetry” has significantly contributed to the growth of the ballad.
Later, significant work was done on the ballad since 19th
century. S.T.Coleridge’s “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is the one
such ballad:
“Water, water, everywhere,
And all t he boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Not any drop to drink.”
These ballads became popular as ‘Literary Ballads’ .R u d y a r d
Kipling came up with his “Ballad of East and West” around the end
of this century. Ezra Pound wrote the 20th century “Ballad of the
Goodly fere”. Thus the trend of written ballads has followed the
ballads that were sung, the traditional ballads. Humorous or tragic,
ballads have evoked interest for centuries and still do.munotes.in

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71.2.6Epic
An epic may be broadly described as a narrative poem based
on events of national, sometimes universal importance. The earliest
epics dealt with an important period of history, generally the
“golden” age of the mythical past. These epics were peopled with
larger than life heroes. Aristotle says that epics show men both as
they are and as they ought to be. Therefore, the epic poet writes
about moral integrity but does not include any human frailty.
The history of epic in the West begins with Homer who sang
of the Heroic Age in Greece. His epics: the “Iliad” and “The
Odyssey”, was about popular heroes engaged in adventures or
battles. The Roman poet, Virgil, who compos ed his epic -“The
Aeneid” some centuries later, modified the Homeric use of history.
In Virgil’s work, past history was useful because of its relevance to
his own times. C.M. Bowra points out a primary difference in the
epics Homer and Virgil wrote by descr ibing the former as “Oral” and
the latter as “Literary” or Secondary. The literary epics of Virgil and
later poets have a formal design and shape not found in Homer, but
they often have less vigour and primary energy than the Oral or
Primary epics. Other p rimary epics are “Gilgamesh” and the early
English “Beowulf”. Some of the best known secondary epics are
Dante’s “Divine Comedy”, the “Song of Roland”, Spenser’s “Fairy
Queen” and Milton’s “Paradise Lost”.
There are some common elements of Epic poetry. T he first
is Invocation to the Muse of Poetry. Milton follows the Homeric
model, starting with a call on the muse:
“Sing, Heavenly muse, of the man’s first disobedience…”
Furthermore comes the use of Heroic Meter. Iambic
pentameter is the one that Milton uses in Paradise Lost. But in all
cases, epic poetry uses relatively long lines, as opposed to, say a
ballad, which is also a sung narrative but normally uses much
shorter lines. It has a Grand Scale and hence a Grand Style. It uses
Continuity. Milton mak es extensive use of very long sentences with
interior pauses marked by commas and semicolons, but with as few
full stops -periods -as possible. It uses the Long Tailed Simile or
Epic Simile or Heroic Simile. As Epic is basically a narrative verse
like the B allad, it begins in ‘media res’.
The secondary epic aims at an even higher solemnity than
the primary. This effect is achieved by what is called ’grandeur’ or
‘elevation’ of the style. As far as Milton is concerned, this grandeur
is produced mainly by th ree things:the use of slightly unfamiliar
words or constructions including archaisms. The use of proper
names, not solely nor briefly for their sound, but because they are
the splendid, remote, terrible, or celebrated thongs. They are theremunotes.in

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8to encourage a sweep of the reader’s eye over the richness and
variety of the world. And lastly, the continued allusion to all the
sources of heightened interest in our sense experience(light,
darkness, storm, flowers, jewels, sexual love and the like).But all
over ‘man aged’ with an air of magnanimous austerity:
“The mind is its own place, and in itself
Can make a Heav’n of Hell, a Hell of Heav’n.”
Book I, Paradise Lost, John Milton
1.2.7Satire
Dr. Johnson defines ‘Satire’ as a “poem in which wickedness
or folly is censured”. Dryden went a step further and claimed that
the true end of satire is “the amendment of voices”. On the contrary
Defoe saw satire as a kind of ‘moral policeman restraining the
righteous but helpless ag ainst the wicked’. Yet Satire has always
been acutely conscious of the difference between what things are
and what they ought to be. A satirist is a kind of social reformer
who, through his poetic genius, attacks the society rather
amusingly. Satire differ s from the ‘comic’ as the comic evokes
laughter for its own sake, whereas satire uses laughter as a
weapon. John Dryden’s “Mac Flecknoe” is an effective satire on a
poetaster who pretends to be a great poet.
Satire has usually been justified by those who practise it as
corrective of human vice and folly. AlexanderPope remarked that
those who are ashamed of nothing else are so of being ridiculous.
Hence, satire’s aim has been to ridicule the ‘failing’rather than
individuals. Satire is generally distinguishe di n t ot w ob r o a d
categories:
1.Formal satire which further is named after the great Roman
Satirists -Horace and Juvenal. Horatian Satire characterises a
witty, urbane speaker, a tolerant man who is more often moved
rather than angry. Juvenalian satire tends to be moral and uses
dignified and stylish utterance to decry vices and follies.
2.The second type of satire is i nformal or indirect satire which is
cast in the form of narration instead of direct addresses, in
which subjects of satire are characters who make themselves
and their opinions ridiculous. Satire is a form which is common
to both Prose and Poetry.
There are great satires in poetrylike “Mac Flecknoe” and
Alexander Pope’s “Rape of the Lock”. John Dryden added wit and
humour, intelligence and sophistication to verse satire. Mac
Flecknoe is the evidence of Dryden’s sophisticated wit. The poem
is an attack on bad writing. It is not a direct attack on the person,
but through the personality and mouth of Flecknoe. Earlier the
Duke of Buckingham had written about Dryden himself,satirically:munotes.in

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9“Our poets make us laugh at tragedy
And with their comedies, they make us cry.”
Thus their age itself was conducive to mutual satire.
In the 18th century the ‘Rape of the Lock’ by Alexander Pope
was the best achievement in the satirical form. It is a mock epic and
a satire on the rituals of the contemporary English high societ y. The
incident in this case is that of the cutting of the young lady’s side
curl. It is comically exalted and is ridiculed by casting it in the epic
structure. There is a conscious contrast between the content and
the form -
“Slight is the subject, but is not so the Praise”
…as the poet declares in the first canto.
Satire, as a genre continued to appeal to the poets even in the
20th century. A serious poet like T.S. Eliot could not avoid its
attraction when he chose to write about the state of religion i nt h e
20th century:
“God works in a mysterious way
The church can sleep and feed at once”
-The Hippopotamus
Thus, satire as a genre and a poetic form has been used to
awaken man from moral slumber.
It has been indeed, a useful poetic means to exercise the
poet’s social concern throughout the ages.
1.2.8Ode
Ode is a literary technique that is lyrical in nature but not very
lengthy. Poets praise people, natural scenes and abstract ideas in
the Ode. T he name of this form is derived from the Greek
word aeidein, which means to chant or sing. Hence poets use
particular metrical patterns and rhyme scheme in the Ode to
express their noble and lofty sentiments. In addition to this the Ode
has elaborate patte rns of stanzas. The tone is serious and
sometimes satirical. Since the themes of odes are inspiring and
lofty, they have a universal appeal.
Odes are of three types; the Pindaric ode, the Horatian ode,
and the Irregular ode. The Pindaric Ode was named af ter an
ancient Greek poet, Pindar, who wrote early odes. It contains three
triads (three line stanzas); the strophe, the antistrophe and the
final stanza known as the epode, with regular rhyme patterns and
lengths of lines. The Horatian Ode was taken from the Latin poet,
Horace. Unlike heroic odes of Pindar, Horatian ode is informal,munotes.in

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10meditative and intimate. These odes dwelt upon interesting subject
matters that were simple and were pleasing to the senses. Since
Horatian odes are informal in tone, they are devoid of any strict
rules. The Irregular Ode is one with subjects similar to that of
Pindar but without any formal rhyme scheme, and structure.
A perfect example of an English Pindaric ode is ‘Ode on
Intimations of Immortality’ by William Wordsworth:
“There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream,
The earth, and every common sight, to me did seem
Apparelled in celestial light, the glory and freshness of a dream.”
On the other hand, an example of the H oratian ode in English,
presenting a consistent rhyme scheme but having no division into
triads like the Pindaric ode, is the ‘Ode to the Confederate Dead’ by
Allen Tate. It is less ceremonious, less formal and better suited for
reading. The purpose of usi ng this type of ode is to give vent to
pent-up feelings:
“Row after row with strict impunity
The headstones yield their names to the element,
The wind whirrs without recollection;
In the riven troughs the splayed leaves
Pile up, of nature the casual sacr ament
To the seasonal eternity of death;”
Furthermore, an example of the Irregular Ode , which employs
neither three parts nor four line stanzas like a Horatian ode, is ‘Ode
to the West Wind’ by Percy Bysshe Shelley. Nevertheless, each
stanza of the ode i s distinct from the other stanzas in rhyme
scheme, pattern and length:
“Scatter, as from an unextinguish’d hearth
Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
Be through my lips to unawaken’d earth
The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,
If Winter comes, can Spr ing be far behind?”
1.3 LET’S SUM UP
In this unit, we have tried to acquaint students with the
characteristics of the literary genre of Poetry; to cultivate
appreciation of Poetry as an artistic medium and to help them
understand the importance of forms, elements and style that shape
Poetry;to enable students to understand that Poetry is an
expression of human values within a historical and socia l context.munotes.in

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111.4 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.Write brief notes on any four of the following:
a.Lyric,
b.Dramatic Monologue
c.Ballad
d.Sonnet
e.Epic
f.Satire
2.Explain the style of Odes used by the poets with examples of
some poems given in the text.
3.Explain the term Elegy with the examples given in the text.



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12Unit -2
LITERARY TERMS: GENRE OF DRAMA
Unit Structure
2.0Objective
2.1Introduction
2.2Types of Drama
2.2.1.Tragedy
2.2.2.Comedy
2.2.3.Farce
2.2.4.Melodrama
2.2.5. Verse Drama or Poetic Drama
2.2.6.Theatre of Absurd
2.2.7.Angry Young Man Drama
2.3Important Questions
The present unit is a continuation of the previous three on
literary terms. Here the learners shall be introduced to the literary
genre of Drama through its types and variants.
2.0 OBJECTIVE:
To acquaint students with the characteristics of the literary
genre of Drama
To cultivate appreciation of Drama as an artistic medium and to
help them understand the importance of forms, elements and
style that shape Drama
To enable students to understand that Drama is an expression
ofhuman values within a historical and social context
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Drama, plays, theatre have been associated with human
civilisation since antiquity. Role play, narration with deep
involvement of the narrator etc. have been its earliest
manifestation. Formally, ancient Greeks and Indians have tried to
theoretize this ‘performing art form’. From an English Drama
perspective, only the Greek influence is the significant one.munotes.in

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13The Greeks divided Drama into Tragedy and Comedy, as is
represented by the two ‘m asks’ associated with Drama; the
weeping face and the laughing face. Over the years Drama
developed to such an extent that many new sub -divisions sprung
up. It is through the study of these different types of Drama, that a
better understanding of the genre is possible.
2.2. TYPES OF DRAMA:
Tragedy
Comedy
Farce
Melodrama
Verse Drama
Theatre of Absurd
Angry Young Man Drama
2.2.1 Tragedy:
Aplay serious in mood and sorrowful in conclusion can be
considered to be a tragedy. Among the first to analyse tragedy,
Aristotle's based his theory on Greek dramatists such as
Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. In the subsequent two
thousand years and mo re, various new types of serious plots
ending in a catastrophe have been developed.
Aristotle defined tragedy as "the imitation of an action that is
serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself." Unlike
modern times, the language of Tragic Drama was poetic and not
prosaic. The plot is a connected series of events. It begins w ith the
establishment of a tragic hero who is an elevated character, a
higher mortal that others can look up to. ‘Peripetia’ or a sudden
reversal of his fortunes takes place owing to ‘hamartia’ or a tragic
flaw in him. M.H. Abrahms says, “The tragic hero, like Oedipus in
Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, moves us to pity because since he is
not an evil man, his misfortune is greater than he deserves; but he
moves us also to fear because we recognize similar possibilities of
error in our own lesser and fallible s elves”. This was the real
purpose behind Tragedy, to bring about a Catharsis i.e. purgation
or purification or both by removing fear and pity from the life of the
audience. To evoke maximum response from the audience,
Aristotle recommended that the tragic plot should have three unities
that of time, place and action. This theory has influenced drama for
nearly 2 millennia since.
The greatest tragedies in English were first written during the
Elizabethan period. Among them Shakespearean tragedies such as
“Macbeth”, “Othello”, “King Lear” and “Hamlet” show definitemunotes.in

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14influence of Aristotle. Yet he does not fully adhere to the Greek
theory and includes his own elements such as breaking the three
unities, mixing tragedy and comedy, showing violence on stage etc.
Some of his most memorable lines are from these tragedies. In
“Macbeth”, he declaims;
“Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.”
Besides the Shakespearean tragedy, another popular form
was the Senecan tragedy. Sackville and Norton’s “Gorboduc”,
Thomas Kyd’s “The Spanish Tragedy”, Christopher Marlowe’ s “Jew
of Malta” and even “Hamlet” show the Senecan influence. Most of
these share a revenge theme and a corpse -strewn climax. The
Spanish Tragedy and Hamlet also have ghosts among the cast; all
these elements can be traced back to the Senecan model. These
were also popular as ‘Revenge Tragedy’ or ‘Tragedy of Blood’. The
beginning of the 17thcentury witnessed the great playwright John
Webster churn out two similar masterpieces; “The Duchess of
Malfi” and “The White Devil”.
The Restoration Period produced a curious genre, a cross
between epic and tragedy called the ‘Heroic Tragedy’. Eighteenth -
century writers popularized the ‘Bourgeois or Domestic Tragedy’,
which was written in prose and presented a protagonist from the
middle class who suffers a domestic d isaster. George Lillo's “The
London Merchant ” (1731), about a merchant's apprentice who
succumbs to a heartless courtesan and comes to a bad end by
robbing his employer and murdering his uncle, is an excellent
example of the Domestic Tragedy. These were like the Henrik
Ibsen kind of ‘Problem plays’ of the 19thcentury.
Experimentations with the tragic form continued into the 20th
century with classics such as Bertolt Brecht’s “Mother Cour age”
who says;
“Courage is the name they gave me because I was scared of
going broke, sergeant, so I drove me cart right through the
bombardment of Riga with fifty loaves of bread aboard. They were
going mouldy, it was high time, hadn't any choice really. ”
2.2.2Comedy:
The simplest meaning of Comedy during the ancient Greek
period was a performance with a happy ending. The earliest
exponents of this form were Aristophanes and Menander. In theirmunotes.in

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15hands, Comedy served the dual purpose to humour/ to amuse and
as a satire to comment and correct. Further, comedy was used
during this period as a means to escape reality.
The last aspect of escaping reality through comedy enticed
the Elizabethan writers who imbibed it in English drama. Since
imagination is the vehicle to escape reality, this kind of comedy
came to be known as ‘Romantic Comedy’ (in those days Romance
meant imagination). Furthermore, these plays concerned love
affairs so eventually the word Romance became associated with
love. S hakespeare’s “As You Like It”, “A Midsummer Night’s
Dream” etc. fall in this category.
In fact in“As You Like It”, Shakespeare brings both the meanings of
Romance face to face with each other;
“If ever -You meet in some Fresh Cheek the power of fancy,
Then shall you know the wounds invisible
That love’s keen arrows make.”
The ‘Romantic comedy’ was followed by the ‘Comedy of Humours’,
developed by Ben Jonson. Here the characters represent the
dominance of one of the ‘Humours’ (Sanguine, phlegmatic, choler ic
and melancholic). The best example is in his aptly titled play,
“Every Man in His Humour.” The names that Ben Jonson gave to
his characters, “Zeal -of-the-land Busy”, “Dame Purecraft”,
“Wellbred” etc. influenced later comedy, especially the ‘Comedy of
Manners’. The Greek playwright Menander should actually get the
credit for the Comedy of Manners. As far as English Drama is
considered, the Restoration period revelled in the Comedy of
Manners. In its subject, it dealt with the love -relation between men
and women and in terms of style it involved witty repartees:
Mirabell: She has beauty enough to make any man think so and
complaisance enough not to contradict him who shall tell her so.
Finall: For a passionate lover, me thinks you are a man so me what
too discerning in the Failings of your mistress
Mirabell: And for a discerning man, somewhat too passionate a
lover; For I like her with all her Faults –nay like her for her faults. –
The Way of the World, William Congreve
Other than Congreve, even Will iam Wycherley was a superb
exponent of the ‘Restoration Comedy’ in his “The Country Wife.”
Later comedy came up with new types such as ‘the
sentimental comedy’, ‘farce’, ‘parody’, ‘black comedy’,munotes.in

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16‘tragicomedy’, ‘theatre of the Comedy’ and has continued to re -
invent itself time and again.
2.2.3 Farce:
If the ‘Comedy of Manners’ can be considered to be ‘high
comedy’ then Farce surely is ‘low comedy’. Farce does not
stimulate the intellect. Instead it uses (vulgar), jokes, gags (Small
comic episodes that are not part of the whole play, just a cosmetic
addition), slapstick humour or clownish activities to make the
audience laugh. Sometimes it stoops so low as to comment on a
character’ s physique or handicap etc. and raise cheap laughter at
him/her expense;
ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE: Where England?
DROMIO OF SYRACUSE: I looked for the chalky cliffs, but I could
find no whiteness in them; but I guess it stood in her chin, by the
salt rheum that ran between France and it.
ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE: Where Spain
DROMIO OF SYRACUSE: Faith, I saw it not; but I felt it hot
in her breath.
ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE: Where America, the Indies?
DROMIO OF SYRACUSE: Oh, sir, upon her nose all o’er
embel lished with rubies, carbuncles, sapphires, declining their rich
aspect to the hot breath of Spain; who sent whole armadoes of
caracks to be ballast at her nose.
The Comedy of Errors William Shakespeare
In the above dialogue, the characters of Antipholus and
Dromio are talking about a maid servant named Nell who is quite
physically unattractive. Dromio jokes that she is round enough to
represent the world and Antipholus picks up on the joke to ask
which p arts of her body represent different countries.
Indeed the entire play contains many different features of
farce. Even the fact that these two characters carry the epithet “of
Syracuse” is notable —they are both identical twins to characters
who have the same first name and thus must be called either “of
Syracuse” or “of Ephesus.”
Further, Farce has a very particular kind of ‘characterisation’.
It employs ‘exaggerated caricatures’ instead of characters. The plot
comes up with ridiculous situations and com ic but do not seem to
be natural to the flow of the play. A good example would be Aphra
Behn’s “The Rover” which depicts the amorous adventures of amunotes.in

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17group of Englishmen in Naples at Carnival time. She was followed
by Henry Fielding’s, “The Author’s Farce.” It is believed that
Fielding never wanted to write “a Farce”. When all his other plays
were rejected, he decided to write a ‘Farce’ in order to mock the
lowly choices or lack of taste, during his times. In the 19thcentury,
John Madison Morton wrote, “Box and Cox” whereas even Charles
Dickens tried his hand at a farce in, “The Lamplighter”. The best
turn of the century Farces were Brandon Thomas “Charley’s Aunt”
and Oscar Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest”. In the 20th
century, farce had not only be en played out in theatre but it had
become popular in films all over the world too.
2.2.4 Melodrama:
Until he 19thcentury, the term ‘melodrama’ simply referred to
a ‘musical play’. This was continuation of the Greek theatrical
conversations. The word ‘ melos’ means ‘a song’ in Greek. So
melodrama simply meant a play with songs in it. However, in 19th
century the term ‘melodrama’ began to acquire a new meaning.
The 19thcentury drama directors started experimenting with
‘background scores’ for their plays . A new trend was set up; to
enhance and emphasise the importance of a scene or to intensify
its emotional experience, a suitable background track would be
played out at loud volumes. This eventually completely changed the
complexion of the play. In order to be in sync with the music, the
actors became ‘maudlin’ or over sentimental. As the acting was
‘affected’, it changed the ‘character’ projected and this
characterisation itself got modified. As per this new
characterisation, the ‘protagonist’ became a ‘H ero’, an excellent
human being, an epitome of goodness. The ‘Female Lead’ had to
suit the hero so she was modelled as one having exemplary ‘purity’
or ‘chastity’ (this went down very well with the then prevailing
notions of Victorian prudery). Since the ba ckground score harped
more often on the emotions of grief and anger, the ‘Villain’ had to
behave like a ruthless monster, an incarnation of all the vices
together. This alone would cause the requisite suffering in the hero
and the heroine and subsequently anger and outrage. Finally the
heightened background score ended up changing the plot itself,
now the plot was reduced to “malicious and wicked plotting” leading
to “Violent action”, inducing widespread suffering -grief giving way
to anger and finally the need to seek revenge. It was surprising,
how as experiment with the background score, led to ‘flat’
characterisation; with as good as it gets characters pitted against
the worst villains. Such a plot took up the nature of a ‘formula’ and
this formula of t he Victorian melodramatic tragedy rules the roost
even today, like the Farcical Comedy, over World Cinema too.
Perfect examples of the 19thcentury melodramas are “Under
the Gaslight” by Augustin Daly, “Ten Nights in a Barroom” by W. W.munotes.in

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18Pratt and George Di bdin Pitt's thriller, “Sweeney Todd, The Barber
of Fleet Street”. The Pitt play was further adapted by Austin Rosser.
Sweeny Todd proclaims in it, in typical melodramatic style:
All you lusty young loving couples, watch out! Sweeney is on
the prowl! And I hate yer. It’ll be you, then her. Eh? Eh? Haha! All
you young fellows with fancy notions in your heads, wenching in
shop doorways, in narrow alleyways, yearning for it under the arch
of a bridge –watch out tonight, ‘cos old Sweeney is on the loose and
he’ll uncouple you.
No wonder then Hollywood adopted Sweeny Todd and made it into
av e r yp o p u l a r2 0 0 7f i l m .
2.2.5 Verse Drama or Poetic Drama:
Any drama written as verseor poetry to be recited is known
as Verse Drama. For a very long period, verse drama was the
dominant form of drama in Europe. In poetic drama the dialogue is
written in verse, which in English is usually blank verse;
“Oh, thou art fairer than the evening air
Clad in the beauty of a thousand stars!
Brighter art thou than Flaming Jupiter
When he appeared to hapless Semele.”
- Doctor Faustus
Christopher Marlowe
Almost all the heroic dramas of English restoration period,
however were written in heroic couplets (ia mbic pentameter lines
rhyming in pairs).
Closet drama: An important trend from around 1800 was the
closet drama: a verse drama intended to be read from the page,
rather than performed. Its precursor was Milton’ s “Samson
Agonistes”(1671). In the nineteenth century, L ord Byron and
Shelley, as well as a host of lesser figures, devoted much time to
the closet drama. Byron's “Manfred”(1817), Shelley’s “Prometheus
Unbound”(1820) and Hardy’s “The Dynasts”(1904 -1908) ar es o m e
of the examples.
Among these Shelley’s “Prometheus Unbound” has great lyrical
merit:
To suffer woes which Hope thinks infinite;
To forgive wrongs darker than death or night;
To defy power which seems omnipotent;
To love and bear; to hope till H ope creates
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19Life may change, but it may fly not;
Hope may vanish, but can die not;
Truth be veiled, but still it burneth;
Love repulsed -but it returneth
Later opera would take up verse drama as something to be
sung. Verse drama as such, however, in becoming closet drama,
became simply a longer poetic form, without the connection to
practical theatre and performance. According to Robertson Davies
in A Voice From the Attic, closet drama is "Dreariest of literature,
most second hand and fusty of experience!".
2.2.6 Theatre of Absurd:
The term is applied to a number of plays which have a
common view that the human cond ition is essentially absurd and
that this condition can be adequately represented only in works of
literature that are themselves absurd. The earliest example of this
is Alfred Jarry's French play “Uburoi” (Ubu the King). This
movement was influenced by th e existentialist philosophy and
became popular after the Second World War.
Samuel Beckett (1906 —89), the most eminent and influential
writer in this mode, both in drama and in prose fiction, was an
Irishman living in Paris who often wrote in French and then
translated his works into English plays, such as “Waiting for Godot”
and “Endgame”. The irrationalism, helplessness and absurdity of
life is represented in dramatic fo rms that reject realistic settings,
logical reasoning or a coherently evolving plot. “Waiting for Godot”
presents two tramps in a wasteland, fruitlessly and all but
hopelessly waiting for an unidentified person, Godot, who may or
may not come. One of them remarks;
"Nothing happens, nobody comes, nobody goes.”
The lucid but eddying and pointless dialogue is often funny
and uses other modes such as slapstick to give a comic cast to the
alienation and anguish of human existence .S o m eo ft h ee a r l y
dramatic works of the Englishman Harold Pinter and the American
Edward Albee are written in a similar mode. The early plays of Tom
Stoppard, such as “Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead” and
“Travesties”, exploit the devices of absurdist theatre more fo r comic
than philosophical ends. Black Comedy and Black Humour also
have affinities with this movement.
The Theatre of the Absurd, a term coined by Martin Esslin,
seemed the appropriate literary response to the Post -Second World
War despair. Though it wa st e m p o r a li nn a t u r ei t se l e m e n t sa r ei n
wide use even today.
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202.2.7 Angry Young Man Drama:
In the late 1950s a number of young writers, such as A.
Wesker, Kingsley Amis and above all John Osborne, were grouped
under the label of "Angry Young M en". They gave voice to the
young generation who, dissatisfied with the world they lived in,
wanted to create their own way of living. They struggled against the
Establishment and some of its values: family, patriotism, the
Church and culture. They began t o cry out against conventions,
tradition and authoritarianism. They felt cheated as the p romises of
the Welfare State had revealed to be empty: society fed them well,
educated them well but still kept them trapped in a class system.
This class discrimination that opened the doors to the rich public -
school alumni or the upper -middle class but kept them closed in the
faces of the members of the working class.
The Angry Young Men's works were politically committed and
dealt with contemporary themes. They took as subject matter the
lower middle class and the working class and depicted in realistic
terms their typical habitat; generally a gloomy and shabby room.
They were torn between the dreams provided by their ideals and
the depressed reality which shattered hopes of a better
future. Unlike the “ Theatre of the Absurd", which was a European
phenomenon, the "Angry Young Man" was typically English. As
about the ori ginof the label "Angry Young Men", there has been a
popular belief that it is taken from the title of John Osborne’s play
"Look Back in Anger". The play does not deal with anger alone but
with a love which dies for lack of spiritual generosity. The centra l
character in the play, Jimmy Porter was himself an angry young
man who represented the young, rebellious post -war generation
that questioned the state and its actions. He complains;
"the wrong people go hungry, the wrong people be loved, the wrong
people dying”.
Other plays in this category include, Osborne’s, “The
Entertainer”, Harold Pinter’s “Hothouse” etc. Around this same time,
there was another movement in theatre dealing with working class
characters and their concerns, called the “Kitchen Sink Realism” or
the “Kitchen Sink drama”. Arnold Wesker’s “ Chicken Soup with
Barley ”and Shelagh Delaney ’s, “A Taste of Honey” belong to both
the categories. Throug hout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the
'Angries' often met at or were nurtured by the Royal Shakespeare
Company and through this venue other such emerging playwrights
asEdward Bond andWole Soyinka were exposed to the AYM
movement directly. Though it was essentially a male "movement",
Shelagh Delaney contributed to it as well. She was described as an
"angry young woman" by Arthur Marwick .munotes.in

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21The Angry Young Man Movement remained relevant only
until its rebels had a valid cause. It later degenerated into ‘rebel
without a cause.’
2.3QUESTIONS:
Q.1 Explain various stages in the development of drama.
Q.2 What according to Aristotle were the elements of drama.
Q.3What are the various types of comedy. Illustrate with examples.
Q.4 How is farce different from comedy. Give examples.
Q.5Discuss the "Angry Young Men" drama and its characteristics.


munotes.in

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22Unit -3
A STUTY OF PRESCRIBED POEMS BY
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, OLIVER
GOLDSMITH AND JOHN KEATS
Unit Structure :
3.0Objectives
3.1Introduction
3.2 From Fairest Creatures We Desire Increase
3.2.1 The Poet
3.2.2 The Text
3.2.3 Explanation
3.2.4 Summary
3.2.5 Commentary
3.3 An Elegy On The Death Of A Mad Dog
3.3.1 The Poet
3.3.2 The Text
3.3.3 Explanation
3.3.4 Summary
3.3.5 Commentary
3.4 Ode On A Grecian URN
3.4.1 The Poet
3.4.2 The Text
3.4.3 Explanation
3.4.4 Summary
3.4.5 Commentary
3.5 Let’s Sum Up
3.6 Suggested Questions
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this Unit is to introduce the readers into the world
of English poetry with the greatest bard, William Shakespeare, and
be acquainted with his first sonnet from the collecti on of Sonnets.
From the sonnet it moves on to the elegy and focuses on Oliver
Goldsmith’s An Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog which is written in
a ballad form. This is followed by Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urnmunotes.in

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23which takes the readers to the enchanted world of the unknown and
the mysterious, articulated through the carvings on the urn that
captures the essence of beauty forever. Magnificently has the three
poems ensured the form and style through wonderful and powerful
expressions.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Shakespe are’s sonnets were composed between 1593 and
1601, though they were not published until 1609. That edition, The
Sonnets of Shakespeare , consists of 154 sonnets, all written in the
form of three quatrains and a couplet which is now recognized as
Shakespeare an sonnet. The sonnets fall into two groups: sonnets
1-126, addressed to a beloved friend, a handsome and noble
young man, and sonnets 127 -152, to a malicious but fascinating
‘Dark Lady’, who the poet loves in spite of himself. Nearly all of
Shakespeare’s sonnets examine the inevitable decay of time and
the immortalization of beauty and love in poetry. Oliver Goldsmith,
in his poem Elegy Written on the Death of a Mad Dog narrates an
entertaining story, inducing laughter and at the same time
communicating th e incident in an incredulous manner. Keats'
anticipated urn is addressed as if he was contemplating a real urn
and as if the urn has survived unspoiled from the remote past.
3.2 FROM FAIREST CREATURES WE DESIRE
INCREASE
3.2.1 THE POET
William Shakespeare (1564 -1616) the poet, dramatist, actor
was often regarded as England’s National Poet and the ‘Bard of
Avon’. Born and brought up in Stratford -on-Avon, he married Anne
Hathaway (who was eight years older to him) at a very young age
of 18 a nd had three children. He made his appearance as an actor
on the London stage where he would write the plays which would
be later performed. Later with a group of actors he created his own
theater –The Globe Theater. His works include approximately 38
plays, 154 odd sonnets, 2 long narrative poems and a few more
verses. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories and
are considered some of the best works produced ever in this genre.
Later he started writing tragedies which include some famous one s
like Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear and Othello. In his last phase he
started writing tragicomedies, also known as romances, and
collaborated with other playwrights too.
In 1593 and 1594 when the theaters closed because of
plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on sensual
themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece .T h ep o e m s
show culpability and moral confusion that resulted frommunotes.in

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24uncontrollable lust. A third narrative poem, AL o v e r ’ sC o m p l a i n t ,
was printed in the first edition of the Sonnet sin 1609 which were
his last non -dramatic works to be printed. The Sonnets are highly
appreciated by the critics as reflective contemplation on the nature
of love, sexual passion, creation, time and death.
3.2.2 THE TEXT
SONNET 1 (From Fairest Creatures we Desire Increase )b y
William Shakespeare
From fairest creatures we desire increase,
That thereby beauty's rose might never die,
But as the riper should by time decease,
His tender heir might bear his memory:
But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes,
Feed'st thy light's flame with self -substantial fuel,
Making a famine where abundance lies,
Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel.
Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament
And only herald to the gaudy spring,
Within thine own bud buriest thy content
And, tender churl, makest waste in niggarding.
Pity the world, or else this glutton be,
To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee.
MEANING OF WORDS/PHRASES
From fairest creatures (line 1): From all beautiful creatures
we desire increase (line 1): we want offspring
riper (line 3): more ripe
contracted to (line 5): bound only to
Feed'st thy light's...fuel (line 6): Feed your eyes (light's flame)
with only the sight of yourself -i.e., you ar es e l f -consumed.
only (line 10): chief.
gaudy (line 10): showy (not used in the modern
uncomplimentary sense); from Middle English gaude ,a
yellowish green color or pigment
niggarding (line 12): hoarding
the world's due (line 14): what you owe to the worl d, i.e. the
continuation of your beauty. The grave, which will consume the
young man's body, will also eatany chance of his beauty living
on, if the young man helps the grave by himself being
gluttonous (in his refusal to have children).munotes.in

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25Notes
The first seventeen sonnets are addressed to the poet's
awesome and enthralling friend, whose identity is anonymous and
there are questions on his existence as well. The poet's main
concern in these sonnets is to convince his friend to start a family,
so that his beauty can live on through his children.
In Shakespeare's sonnets, the rhyme pattern is ababcdcdefef
gg, with the final couplet used to summarize the previous 12 lines
or present a surprise ending. The rhythmic pattern of the sonnets is
usually iam bic pentameter.
3.2.3 EXPLANATION
The first sonnet ‘ From Fairest Creatures we Desire
Increase ’, from the collection Sonnets, implies to the fact that we
desire beautiful creatures to multiply, in order to preserve their
‘beauty’ for the benefit of the wor ld. It can be considered this way
that when the parent dies (“as the riper should by time decease”),
the child might continue with the parent’s beauty (“His tender heir
might bear his memory”). The death of the parent should not mean
the death of beauty; t he beauty of the rose should be carried
forward through the children.
In the second quatrain, the poet blames the young man for
being too self -absorbed to even think of procreation: he is
“contracted” to his own “bright eyes,” and feeds his light with the
fuel of his own attractiveness. The speaker says that this makes the
young man his own unsuspecting rival, because this nature of his
makes “a famine where abundance lies”. Accumulating all the love
by the young man for his own beauty only is really an ac to f
immaturity.
In the third quatrain, he argues that the young man may now
be beautiful –he is undoubtedly “the world’s fresh ornament / And
only herald to the gaudy spring” –but that, in time, his beauty will
fade, and he will bury his “content” within his flower’s own bud (that
is, he will not pass his beauty on; it will wither with him). In the
couplet, the speaker asks the young man to “pity the world” and
replicate, or el se be a glutton who, like the grave, eats the beauty
he owes to the whole world. His beauty is not personal; he has to
share it with the world and that can happen only if he reproduces.
3.2.4 SUMMARY
Shakespeare begins his sonnets by introducing four of his
most important themes –immortality, time, procreation, and
selfishness –which are interrelated in this first sonnet both
thematically and through the use of images associated withmunotes.in

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26business or comm erce (the word ‘increase’ is a clear representation
of this).
The sonnet's first four lines relate all of these important
themes. Individually, each of these four lines addresses a separate
issue. Line 1 is concerned with procreation, especially in the ph rase
"we desire increase"; line 2 hints at immortality in the phrase "might
never die"; line 3 presents the theme of time's unceasing progress;
and line 4 combines all three concerns: A "tender heir" represents
the mortality for parents, who will grow old and die. According to the
sonnet the poet’s expression of procreation ensures that our
continuation will be carried forward by our children. And if we do not
have children, our existence will be extinguished with our death.
But, the scenario the poet crea tes in the next few lines (lines
5–12) apparently has been rejected by the young man, whom the
poet addresses as "thou". Interested only in his own selfish desires,
the youth is the embodiment of narcissism, a destructively
excessive love of oneself. The p oet makes clear that the youth's
self-love is harmful and unrealistic, not only for himself but for the
entire world. Because the young man is not willing to share himself
with the world by having a child to carry on his beauty, he creates
"a famine where abundance lies" and thus is unnecessarily hurting
himself viciously. The "bud" in line 11 recalls the "rose" from line 2 –
the rose as an image of perfection underscores the immaturity of
the young man, who is only a bud, still imperfect because he has
notfully bloomed.
The final couplet –the last two lines –reinforces the injustice
of the youth's not sharing his beauty with the world. The "famine"
that he creates for himself is communicated through the phrase "To
eat the world's due," as though the you th has the responsibility and
the world has the right to expect the young man to father a child.
Throughout the sonnet Shakespeare draws his imagery from
everyday life and the world around him. In this sonnet he writes of
love in terms of commercial purpos e, the practice of charging
exorbitant interest on money lent. For example, in the first line,
which reads, "From fairest creatures we desire increase,""increase"
means not only nature's gain through procreation but also
commercial profit, an idea linked t oa n o t h e rt r a d et e r m ,
"contracted," in line 5. In line 12, by using the now -antiquated term
"niggarding," which means hoarding, the poet implies that the
youth, instead of marrying a woman and having children, is selfishly
wasting his love all for himself.
3.2.5 COMMENTARY
The first sonnet introduces many of the themes that defines
the sequence: beauty, the passage of human life in time, the ideas
of virtue and wasteful self -consumption (“thou, contracted to thinemunotes.in

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27own bright eyes”), and the love of the poe tf o rt h ey o u n gm a n ,
which causes him to elevate the young man above the whole world,
and to consider his procreation a form of “pity” for the rest of the
earth. Sonnet 1opens not only the entire sequence of sonnets, a
group comprising the first seventeen sonnets, often called the
“procreation” sonnets because they each urge the young man to
bear children as an act of rebelliousness against time.
The logical structure of Sonnet 1is relatively simple –the
first quatrain states the moral premise, that beaut y should strive to
propagate itself; the second quatrain accuses the young man of
violating that moral premise, by wasting his beauty on himself
alone; the third quatrain gives him an urgent reason to change his
ways and obey the moral premise, because oth erwise his beauty
will wither and disappear; and the couplet summarizes the
argument with a new exhortation to “pity the world” and father a
child. Some of the metaphoric images in the poem, however, are
quite complex. The image of the young man contracted to his own
bright eyes, feeding his “light’s flame” with “self -substantial fuel,” for
instance, is an extremely intricate image of self -absorption.
3.3 AN ELEGY ON THE DEATH OF A MAD DOG
3.3.1 THE POET
Oliver Goldsmith (1728 -1774) was an Irish novelist, essayist,
poet and playwright who is best known for his novel The Vicar of
Wakefield , the pastoral poem The Deserted Village and his plays
The Good Natured Man and She Stoops to Conquer .A l t h o u g hh e
was b etter known as a dramatist, many of his poems and essays
attracted encouraging acceptance and with his novel The Vicar of
Wakefield , a humorous and sentimental story of a village curate’s
attempts to guide his children through the tribulations of growing
up, he gained immense reputation.
Goldsmith’s poetry was often comic as is seen in his
parodies An Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog andAn Elegy on the
Glory of her Sex: Mrs. Mary Blaze ,b u ta tt i m e sw h e nh i s
compassion was touched, he created some commenda ble solemn
poems, the most outstanding of which is The Deserted Village
which is based on a protest against the economic and social
conditions that were forcing enormous reallocation of the masses
from villages to cities.
3.3.2 THE TEXT
An Elegy on the D eath of a Mad Dog by Oliver Goldsmith
Good people all, of every sort,
Give ear unto my song;
And if you find it wondrous short,
It cannot hold you long.munotes.in

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28In Islington there was a man,
Of whom the world might say
That still a godly race he ran,
Whene'er he w ent to pray.
A kind and gentle heart he had,
To comfort friends and foes;
The naked every day he clad,
When he put on his clothes.
And in that town a dog was found,
As many dogs there be,
Both mongrel, puppy, whelp and hound,
And curs of low degree.
This dog and man at first were friends;
But when a pique began,
The dog, to gain some private ends,
Went mad and bit the man.
Around from all the neighbouring streets
The wondering neighbours ran,
And swore the dog had lost his wits,
To bite so good a man.
The wound it seemed both sore and sad
To every Christian eye;
And while they swore the dog was mad,
They swore the man would die.
But soon a wonder came to light,
That showed the rogues they lied:
The man recovered of the bite,
The dog it was that died.
3.3.3 EXPLANATION
The poem is in ballad form and it not only invites the
attention of the readers but also instigates them indirectly and
expects them to take pleasure in observing the diverse behavior
pattern of a dog (the poet might even be referring to ah u m a n
character in the form of a dog). So he asks every individual –‘good
people all of every sort’ –to pay attention to his justification. In the
second stanza the poet highlights the character from Islington
emphasizing upon the man’s deceptive outwa rd appearance.
Although religious in attitude the man would hide his real self from
the world during his stay in the Church. The third stanza talks about
the kind and gentle behavior that the man had in the company of
his friends and how he would attempt t o comfort not only his friends
but foes too. The poet wants to enhance that the interior motive ofmunotes.in

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29the person should be reflected rather than the mask of pity and
sympathy that he wears. So this hiding of interior motives reflects
on the unethical behavior pattern and justifies the meanness of a
character –‘the naked everyday he clad when he put on his
clothes’. The metaphor ‘clothes’ here reveals the genuine truth
unveiling the actual self.
The next stanza refers to the villainous dog which is a
member o f the ‘canine family’ which has other varieties too like the
mongrel, puppy, whelp and hound. Though the species of this
particular dog has not been mentioned but it is understood that it
belongs to that family only which is considered to be man’s greatest
friend. But it so happens that some problem between the man and
the dog results in irritation and the dog desperately strives to hurt
the man. Every neighbor wondered and sympathized with the man
and swore that the dog has definitely lost its wits to bite such a
good man. These pious Christian souls believed that the dog was
obviously mad and the wound was so alarming and painful that the
man would certainly not survive.
And then the paradox in the last stanza highlighting the
central theme of the poet –the man recovered from the bite and it
was the dog that died. The man, the hypocrite in the society, is the
one who carries the venom in his body. The whole contradiction
depends on the following lines –“And while they swore the dog was
mad / They swore the man would die.” They (the neighbors) could
be making two mistakes in this –
1.They think that the man is as good enough as he seems to be
and definitely they are not suspecting that his selfishness is
instigating more deadly poison that even a mad dog c an induce.
2.They know how corrupt the man is as they themselves are and
they fail to realize the influence of corruption which can easily
transfuse the qualities of wickedness and murder in them.
In both cases the dog is a figure of sensibility; it can be the
mad philosopher/prophet/poet that either cures or contaminates the
community. If it is the first case, the dog works in the service of the
community by saving it from the clutches of an isolated villain. And
in the second case, where the community is a ttacked, it is the dog
that is an enemy. The actual situation of responsiveness is between
the two –the community which is at large corrupt or the dog -bite
which is an act of martyrdom. The dog hasn't, as in the first case
above, simply exposed the wicked man; it has exposed the whole
community's belief in the harmlessness of corruption.
3.3.4 SUMMARY
Oliver Goldsmith, in his poem Elegy Written on the Death of
aM a dD o g narrates a rather amusing stor y, inducing laughter andmunotes.in

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30at the same time expressing the incident in a skeptical manner. His
proficient expertise of stimulating his readers to identify his
viewpoints by inspecting the funny approaches of some people,
finds its extreme exposure in this po em. The narrator of the poem
definitely has a sense of emotional outburst and caring concern
when he talks about the poor and the destitute and he very
beautifully expresses the essence of connection through his deftly
created line –“the naked everyday he clad, when he put on his
clothes.” The poet tries to highlight that this God -fearing religious
good man from Islington has indeed a very ‘kind and gentle heart’.
The man’s personality is infused with wonderful inner spiritual
qualities and so he is a comf ort not just to his friends but enemies
as well. He is such a kind man that he has the capability as well as
the desirability to clothe the naked whom he meets.
Definitely the community that the man resides in has a high
respect for his caring and compass ionate behavior and so they
believe that definitely the dog has ‘lost its wits’ when he bit the man.
The neighborhood wonders how any living creature can even think
of harming this sincere, caring and kind person. This justifies the
high regard that the to wnspeople have for this generous hearted
man. It is obvious that the man is an inspiration to the people as he
tries his best to lighten the burdens of life that people carry with
themselves on daily basis. And when this Christian soul is bitten by
ad oi t is obvious that the man will die. But ironically enough it is the
dog that dies of the venom of the corrupt man justifying the
meanness of the man and the society at large.
3.3.5 COMMENTARY
Oliver Goldsmith has very elegantly written this satirical
poem in a suggestive tone. If read on a superficial way it clearly
states that the man was good and the dog was at fault but it was
the dog that died at the end. But from the beginning the poet
signals the readers to a very different tone. Initially itself the poem
generates a kind of shock especially when the man described in the
poem seems godly and kind only when he dresses himself (and not
the other times) and when he goes to pray (and not any other time).
And this attitude of the man confirms his fake perso nality. The dog,
on the other hand, can be taken as a representation of the deprived
and defeated people who are not getting what they deserve
because of such ‘godly’ people around. And, hence, to take
revenge and meet their own personal needs the dog bite st h em a n .
The dog understands that there is no other way of survival in a
world filled with spurious people who are so selfish that they are
just bothered about themselves rather than being worried for
others. The poet has personified the dog with human q ualities who
tries to fit in into this inhuman world. The typical neighbors are also
very well projected with their stereotype image of gossiping,
spreading news and interfering into the matters of others. Here toomunotes.in

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31they are there to predict the ultimate –the dog bite will definitely
cause the man to die. But surprising to every Christian eye, the dog
dies and the man survives exposing the fact that man has more
poison in him compared to that of a dog, justifying that finally the
good is sacrificed and the evil survives. So the ultimate question is
whether the Christian faith of goodness and humanity lost in this
world of corruption and selfishness, malice and massacre?
3.4 ODE ON A GREECIAN URN
3.4.1 THE POET
John Keats, the most romantic of the Romantic poets,
always believed that beautiful things will never die but will keep
demonstrating their beauty all the time and this idea of his was
explored in his first book of Endymion .I nm a n yo fh i sp o e m sh e
leaves the factual world to explore an inspirational, mythical or
aesthetic sphere and then he would come back to his ordinary life
with a transformed self and a new perception. The capacity to be
lost in a reverie, to move out from a conscious life in search of an
imaginative one without speculating about r eality or
reasonableness, is Keats’s concept of ‘negative capability’ –a
theory where the poet must disappear from the work (the work
should account the experience in such a way that the readers
recognize and respond to the incidence without the interfere nce or
elucidation of the poet). Keats also imagined that the five senses
freely correspond to and connect with the various types of art and
music and musicians appear throughout his work as ‘symbols’ of
poetry. Like his fellow Romantic poets Keats also fo und in nature
an endless source of poetic inspiration and he described this
natural world with precision and care. Keats also had a continuing
interest in the distant past and the ancient world and his longer
poems, such as The Fall of Hyperion orLamia ,takes place in a
mythical surrounding.
3.4.2 THE TEXT
Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats
Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness,
Thou foster -child of silence and slow time,
Sylvan historian, who canst thus express
A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme:
What leaf -fring'd legend haunts about thy shape
Of deities or mortals, or of both,
In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
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32What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?
Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;
Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd,
Pipe to the s pirit ditties of no tone:
Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave
Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare;
Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
Though winning near the goal yet, do not grieve;
She canno t fade, though thou hast not thy bliss,
For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair!
Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed
Your leaves, nor ever bid the Spring adieu;
And, happy melodist, unwearied,
For ever piping s ongs for ever new;
More happy love! more happy, happy love!
For ever warm and still to be enjoy'd,
For ever panting, and for ever young;
All breathing human passion far above,
That leaves a h eart high -sorrowful and cloy'd,
A burning forehead, and a parching tongue.
Who are these coming to the sacrifice?
To what green altar, O mysterious priest,
Lead'st thou that heifer lowing at the skies,
And all her si lken flanks with garlands drest?
What little town by river or sea shore,
Or mountain -built with peaceful citadel,
Is emptied of this folk, this pious morn?
And, little town, thy streets for evermore
Will silent be; an dn o tas o u lt ot e l l
Why thou art desolate, can e'er return.
OA t t i cs h a p e !F a i ra t t i t u d e !w i t h b r e d e
Of marble men and maidens overwrought,munotes.in

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33With forest branches and the trodden weed;
Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought
As doth eternity: Cold Pastoral!
When old age shall this generation waste,
Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe
Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou say'st,
"Beauty is truth, truth beauty, —thatis all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know."
3.4.3 EXPLANATION
In the first stanza, the speaker locates himself before an
ancient Grecian urn and addresses it. Somehow the speaker is
thoughtful about and preoccupied with its portray al of pictures
frozen in time. It is the “still unravish’d bride of quietness,” the
“foster -child of silence and slow time” –as if it has known so well
the importance of silence and time. He also describes the urn as a
‘historian’ who can tell a story. Wo ndering about the figures on the
side of the urn he is curious to know the legend they illustrate and
also from where they come. He looks at a picture that seems to
depict a group of men pursuing a group of women and wonders
what their story could be: “Wha tm a dp u r s u i t ?W h a ts t r u g g l et o
escape? / What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?”
In the second stanza, the speaker looks at another picture
on the urn and this time it is of a young man playing a pipe, lying
with his lover underneath a clearing of t rees. The speaker says that
the piper’s ‘unheard’ melodies are sweeter than mortal melodies
because they are untouched by time. He tells the youth that, though
he can never kiss his lover because he is frozen in time, he should
not grieve, because her beau ty will never fade. Physical beauty
dies away with time and so the youth should be happy that the
beauty of his beloved is capture forever and has become immortal.
In the third stanza, he looks at the trees surrounding the lovers and
feels happy that they will never shed their leaves. He is happy for
the piper because his songs will be ‘for ever new’, and happy that
the love of the boy and the girl will remain forever, unlike mortal
love, which lapses into “breathing human passion” and eventually
vanishes, leaving behind only a “burning forehead, and a parching
tongue.” Nothing will fade of as it usually happens in the mortal
world and this feeling of immortality makes the poet happy and
contented.
In the fourth stanza, the speaker examines another picture
on the urn, this one of a group of villagers leading a heifer to be
sacrificed. He wonders where they are going (“To what green altar,
O mysterious priest...”) and from where they have come. Hemunotes.in

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34imagines their little town, empty of all its citizens at the present as
everyone is going to the place of the sacrifice, and tells it that its
streets will ‘for evermore’ be silent, because those who have left it
will never return as they are now frozen on the urn.
In the final stanza, the speaker addresses the urn again,
saying that the urn like Eternity, “doth tease us out of thought.” He
thinks that when his generation is long dead, the urn will remain,
telling the future generations its enigmatic lesson: “Beauty is truth,
truth beauty.” The speaker says that thi si st h eo n l yt h i n gt h eu r n
knows and the only thing it needs to know.
The poem portrays the speaker’s attempt to engage with the
static immobility of sculpture. The Grecian urn, passed down
through countless centuries to the time of the speaker’s viewing ,
exists outside of time in the human sense –it does not age, it does
not die, and indeed it is alien to all such concepts. In the speaker’s
meditation, this creates an intriguing paradox for the human figures
carved into the side of the urn: They are fre ef r o mt i m e ,b u tt h e ya r e
simultaneously frozen in time. They do not have to confront aging
and death (their love is ‘forever young’), but neither can they have
experience (the youth can never kiss the maiden; the figures in the
procession can never return to their homes).
3.4.4 SUMMARY
Keats' imagined urn is addressed as if he were
contemplating a real urn and as if the urn has survived undamaged
from the distant past. It is a ‘sylvan historian’ telling us a story,
which the poet suggests and wants to cla rify through a series of
questions. Who are these gods or men carved or painted on the
urn? Who are these reluctant maidens? What is this mad pursuit?
Why the struggle to escape? What is the explanation for the
presence of musical instruments? Why this mad ecstasy?
Innumerable questions to seek a better judgment and
immeasurable knowledge hunt to acquire a better picture!
It’sr e a l l yv e r yt r u et h a ti m a g i n e dm e l o d i e sa r el o v e l i e rt h a n
those heard by human ears. Therefore the poet urges the musician
pictured on the urn to play on endlessly. His songs should touch the
height of immortality and neither should the trees ever shed t heir
leaves. Although the lover on the urn can never win a kiss from his
beloved, but it is also true that his beloved can never lose her
beauty. Happy are the trees on the urn, for they can never lose
their leaves. Happy is the musician forever playing so ngs forever
new. The lovers on the urn enjoy a love forever warm, forever
panting, and forever young, far better than actual love, which
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35And then the queries shift –Who are the people coming to
perform a s acrifice? To what altar does the priest lead a garlanded
heifer? What town do they come from? That town which will forever
remain silent and deserted!
And finally Keats’s request to the urn –Fair urn, Keats says,
adorned with figures of men and maidens, trees and grass, you
bring our speculations to a point at which thought leads nowhere,
like meditation on eternity. After our generation is gone, you will still
be here, as a friend to man, telling him that beauty is truth and truth
is beauty —that is all he knows on earth and all he needs to know.
3.4.5 COMMENTARY
Keats has created a Greek urn in his mind and has
decorated it with three scenes. The first is full of hyperactive action
and the actors are men, or gods, and maidens. Other figures, or it
can possibly be the male figures, are playing musical instruments
and the maidens are probably the nymphs of classical mythology.
The men or gods are obsessed with love and are chasing them.
Keats’s love for classical mythology is very well projected and it
seems that he had probably read stories of such love games. Even
it is found in Book II of his Endymion, where he recounts Alpheus'
pursuit of Arethusa, and in Book III he tells of Glaucus' pursuit of
Scylla.
The second scene is developed in stanzas II and III which
takes place under the trees where a lover is crooning to his
beloved. In the first stanza Keats restricts himself with question
whereas it is not so in the second scene where the romantic image
of a youth playing a musical instrument and hoping a kiss from his
beloved dominates the atmosphere. The scene enlightens the
thoughts of Keats on the function of art which ensures a kind of
permanence to reality. Definitely Keats is trying to imagine a state
of perfect existence as represented by the lover s.
The third scene on the urn reflects on a group of people on
their way to perform a sacrifice along with the sacrificial animal held
by the priest. It’s really amazing to wonder that Keats instead of
limiting himself to the sacrificial procession concen trates more on
the town that is desolate because inhabitants have left for the
procession.
And the final scene contains the beauty -truth equation which
has become one of the most sought after and controversial line in
the criticism of Keats’s poetry. On t he one hand it can be Art’s
arrest of time which is a form of eternity and has thus brought
perpetuity into the poem as well. Or it can be the poet’s imagination
that the urn has been capable enough of preserving a temporary
and happy performance thus maki ng it eternal forever. Keats wasmunotes.in

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36quite charmed by the beautiful works of art and his vision of
happiness has always been through the means of sharing one’s
existence enthusiastically and bringing out the emotional life
through one’s imagination. And maybe when he says ‘that is all ye
know on earth’ he is presuming an existence beyond earth.
3.5 LET’S SUM UP
The three poems take the readers into the depth of
understanding of a Shakespearean sonnet, an elegy in a ballad
form and the magnificence of an ode. The poems of these three
inspirational and philosophical poets enhance a significant
perception of poetry writing. From Shakespeare’s most important
themes of immortality, time, procreation and selfishness to the
amusing and satirical outburst of Goldsmit ha n dt h e nt ot h e
thoughtful and expressive portrayal of Keats, the poems augment
connectivity and consciousness, worthiness and wisdom.
3.6 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1.Comment on the most important themes that Shakespeare has
used in his sonnet From Fairest Creatures we Desire Increase ?
2.An Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog by Oliver Goldsmith is a
satirical poem in a suggestive tone. Comment.
3.Elucidate what John Keats wants to express through his poem
Ode on a Grecian Urn .
3.7 REFERENCES
1.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
2.www.sparknotes.com › Spark Notes › Poetry Study Guides
3.https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets
4.https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/k/keats -poems

munotes.in

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37Unit-4
A STUTY OF PRESCRIBED POEMS BY
THOMAS CAMPBELL, ROBERT
BROWNING AND ROBERT FROST
Unit Structure:
4.1 Objective
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Lord Ullin’s Daughter
4.3.1 –The Poet
4.3.2 –The Text
4.3.3 –Explanation
4.3.4 –Summary
4.3.5 –Commentary
4.4 The Last Ride Together
4.4.1 –The Poet
4.4.2 –The Text
4.4.3 –Explanation
4.4.4 –Summary
4.4.5 –Commentary
4.5 Stopping By The Woods On A Snowy Evening
4.5.1 –The Poet
4.5.2 –The Text
4.5.3 –Explanation
4.5.4 –Summary
4.5.5 –Commentary
4.6 Let’s Sum Up
4.7 Suggested Questions
4.8 References
4.1 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this Unit is to navigate through the poems of
Thomas Campbell, Robert Browning and Robert Frost and
experience the essence of love and life at the backdrop of an
unrelenting nature. From the tragic story of Lord Ullin’s Daughter to
the emotional struggle of the lover for his beloved on their last ride
together and then the sudden stopping of the traveller in the darkmunotes.in

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38deep and lonely woods it is observed that the journey of life
everywhere is complicated and mournful but one has to move on
focusing more on the positive attributes and living for the moment
with utmost enthusiasm.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Thomas Campbell’s Lord Ullin’s Daughter is a Scottish
ballad which conveys the tragic story of the daughter of Lord Ullin
who runs away with her lover and to avoid the anger of her father
takes the boat during a severe storm and is engulfed in water. The
Last Ride Together by Robert Browning i sad r a m a t i cm o n o l o g u eo f
a rejected lover exploring the end of a love affair and experiencing
the heavenly pleasure of the last ride with his lady love. Stopping
by the Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost is very
universal and philosophical in its al legorical suggestions about life,
time and dedication to a goal or vocation, consciousness and so on
and including the romantic theme, ‘life journey’ ideas and religious
themes, these general suggestions can be called ‘philosophical’.
4.3 LORD ULLIN’S DAU GHTER
4.3.1–THE POET
Thomas Campbell (1777 -1844) was a Scottish poet and is
chiefly remembered for his sentimental poetry dealing especially
with human affairs. He was the founder and the first President of
the Clarence Club and a co -founder of the Lite rary Association of
the Friends of Poland. His major works include Pleasures of Hope ,
a didactic poem in heroic couplets and various stirring patriotic war
songs like Ye Mariners of England ,The Soldier’s Dream ,
Hohenlinden and The Battle of Mad and Strang e Turkish Princes .
He was a versatile professional writer and not solely a poet. He
wrote for newspapers, compiled biographies, contributed articles to
encyclopaedias and was also the Editor of The New Monthly
Review. His Specimens of the British Poets whi ch extended to
seven volumes included selected passages from writers with
biographies and criticism.
4.3.2–THE TEXT
Lord Ullin's Daughter by Thomas Campbell
AC h i e f t a i nt ot h eH i g h l a n d sb o u n d ,
Cries, 'Boatman, do not tarry;
And I'll give thee a silver pound
To row us o'er the ferry.'
'Now who be ye would cross Lochgyle,
This dark and stormy water?'munotes.in

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39'Oh! I'm the chief of Ulva's isle,
And this Lord Ullin's daughter.
'And fast before her father's men
Three days we've fled together,
For shoul dh ef i n du si nt h eg l e n ,
My blood would stain the heather.
'His horsemen hard behind us ride;
Should they our steps discover,
Then who will cheer my bonny bride
When they have slain her lover?'
Outspoke the hardy Highland wight:
'I'll go, my chief –I'm ready:
It is not for your silver bright,
But for your winsome lady.
'And by my word, the bonny bird
In danger shall not tarry:
So, though the waves are raging white,
I'll row you o'er the ferry.'
By this the storm grew loud apace,
Thew a t e r -wraith was shrieking;
And in the scowl of heaven each face
Grew dark as they were speaking.
But still, as wilder blew the wind,
And as the night grew drearer,
Adown the glen rode armed men -
Their trampling sounded nearer.
'Oh! Haste thee, ha ste!' the lady cries,
'Though tempests round us gather;
I'll meet the raging of the skies,
But not an angry father.'
The boat has left a stormy land,
A stormy sea before her -
When oh! Too strong for human hand,
The tempest gathered o'er her.
And still they rowed amidst the roar
Of waters fast prevailing;
Lord Ullinreach'd that fatal shore -
His wrath was chang'd to wailing.
For sore dismay'd, through storm and shade,
His child he did discover;munotes.in

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40One lovely hand she stretch'd for aid,
And one was round her lover.
'Come back! Come back!' he cried in grief,
'Across this stormy water;
And I'll forgive your Highland chief,
My daughter! -oh, my daughter!'
'Twas vain: the loud waves lash'd the shore,
Return or aid preventing;
The waters wild went o'er his child,
And he was left lamenting.
MEANING OF WORDS/PHRASES
Chieftain –the chief or head of a clan
Tarry –delay
Loch –a lake
Lochgyle –or Loch -Na-Keal is the sea loch which separates
Gribun on Mull from Ullva to the North
Ulva –An island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland
Glen –valley (typically one that is long, deep and often ‘U’
shaped)
Heather –a plant with pinkish -purple flowers
4.3.3–EXPLANATION
In Stanza 1 a Chieftain who is going to the highlands cries
out to the boat man with an appeal not to delay and he promises to
give him a silver pound if he takes him and his beloved (Lord Ullin’s
daughter) across the river on his ferry.
In Stanza 2 when questioned by the boatman regarding who
was willing to row across Lochgyle in this dark and stormy weather,
the Chieftain introduces himself as the Chieftain of Ulva island and
with him was his beloved, Lord Ullin’s daughter.
In Stanza 3 he requests the boatman to take them from
there before her father’s men come and capture the m. He informs
that they have fled three days back and he knows that if her father’s
men finds them he would definitely kill the Chieftain and stain the
heather plant with his blood.
In Stanza 4 he adds that Lord Ullin’s armed horsemen are
chasing them cl ose and if they get him they will definitely kill him.
And then he assures that he is ready to die but the only question
that arises after his death is who will take care and make happy his
beautiful beloved?munotes.in

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41In Stanza 5 the strong and brave boatman becom es
sympathetic towards them and accepts to take them across the
river and he also decides not to take any money from the lady.
In Stanza 6 the boatman swears not to keep the lady in
danger any more. Although the waves are getting more and more
violent an d furious and foaming he assures that he will take them
beyond Lochgyle.
In Stanza 7 the increasing storm is hinted as turning more
and more rough and violent. It seemed as if the water ghost was
shouting and the sky turned darker. The turbulence of the s ky and
its frowning look brought a scared flush on the face of all three.
In Stanza 8 again it is the description of the rough and
violent wind that was blowing with all its force and the night that
was gradually becoming darker and scarier. Suddenly so unds of
armed soldiers are heard from the glen as if coming towards them.
In Stanza 9 Lord Ullin’s daughter requests the boatman to
move faster. Though the wind and storm were very wild she says
she would prefer to face the anger of the sky than to face her angry
father.
In Stanza 10 they leave the stormy land and now they have
to face the more stormy sea before them. The storm definitely was
more powerful for any human to navigate and the gathering
tempest over them ensured their defeat.
In Stanza 11 the three are seen fighting hard against the
deadly waves till their last breath. And in the meantime, Lord Ullin
reaches the fatal shore and the anger that he bore against them
changed into mournful wailing.
Stanza 12 discusses how through s torm and shade, in pain
and shock, the father finds out his child. The beautiful girl stretches
out one of her hands towards her father with an intention to be
saved by him and the other hand was around her lover who was
immensely dear to her.
Stanza 13 f inds Lord Ullin screaming out to his daughter in
shock and pain accepting his fault and requesting her to come
back. Wailing on the shore he promises to forgive her lover.
Stanza 14 shows how the father’s howling and lamenting
goes waste as the massive vi olent loud waves made the Lochgyle
terrible. Neither was any aid from outside possible nor could they
come back fighting the forceful waves. And then a big wave engulfs
his child and he is left mourning on the shore.munotes.in

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424.3.4–SUMMARY
Lord Ullin’s Daughter is a Scottish ballad which conveys the
tragic story of the daughter of Lord Ullin who runs away with her
lover and to avoid the anger of her father takes the boat during a
severe storm and is engulfed in water. The poem begins with the
daughter and her lo ver, the Chieftain, who arrive at the banks of
Lochgyle with the intention of eloping to a safer place. The lover
offers the boatman a silver pound to carry them across to safety but
the boatman is apprehensive as the weather is stormy and it is very
dange rous to cross Lochgyle is such a state. The lover introduces
himself as the Chief of Ulva and also describes how they have
been running away from the men of her father who were chasing
them. He is anxious of his life as he is very sure that her father will
get him slaughtered if caught. Sensing the crisis and unable to say
no to the pleading of the beautiful daughter, who is ready to face
the raging storm rather than the angry father, the boatman agrees
to help though he knows very well that it might cost t hem their lives.
The boat finally leaves the shore when Lord Ullin and his
men arrive. Seeing them in a critical state Lord Ullin’s anger
immediately evaporates. His heart melts seeing his darling
daughter fighting nature’s fury. One of her hands she rai ses
towards her father with the plea to be rescued and the other she
keeps it around her lover with a determination never to leave him.
He cries out to her to return and also promises to accept her lover.
But it is too late before the father could do anyth ing and the little
boat capsizes and the three of them drown in the turbulent water
leaving the leaving the shocked father on the shore lamenting and
cursing for his deed.
4.3.5–COMMENTARY
Lord Ullin’s Daughter draws its setting from the real
landscape of the Scottish Highlands. The Lochgyle Lake is an
actual lake and so is the isle Ulva and hence most part of the poem
focuses on depicting both the beautiful and dangerous sides of
Scotland –the landscape that can rejuvenate the spirits can also
cause d eath and destruction. The title of the poem might seem
misleading initially as Lord Ullin’s daughter hardly speaks except for
once and most of the conversation is carried out between the
Chieftain and the boatman and the concern is the reaction of the
father. But it should be understood that Lord Ullin’s daughter if the
object of affection of every character –she is the beloved of the
Chieftain of Ulva, she is the most important thing in her father’s life
and it is her innocence that convinces the boatman to agree. It is
only because of her that the fatal journey is undertaken. The poem
teaches us an important lesson –undoubtedly parents have the
right to protect their children but they have no authority to control
their lives. It’s only because Lord Ullin had threatened their lives
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43that the daughter is ready to face the fury of nature rather than the
anger of her father and this results in death and disaster, suffering
and submission.
The poem has all the characteristics of a ballad and it tells a
tale that has its origins in Scottish folk -tales. It even boasts of
supernatural character in the form of the water -wraith, the sight of
which is supposed to spell doom for human beings, acco rding to
the Gaelic legends. The tone of the poem is predominantly
adventurous as the readers experience fear and anxiety as they
read about the violent storm through which the lovers are hoping to
escape. Towards the end the tone changes to one of guilt a nd
remorse as Lord Ullin realizes his mistake.
4.4 THE LAST RIDE TOGETHER
4.4.1–THE POET
Robert Browning (184 -1889), an English poet and
playwright, is known for his mastery of ‘dramatic monologue’ and
his poems are known for their irony, characterization, dark humour,
social commentary, historical settings and stimulating vocabulary &
syntax. The uniqueness of ‘dramatic monologue’ was that the
character speaks to a listener articulating his/her sub jective point of
view. His most acclaimed poems include My Last Duchess ,
Porphyria’s Lover ,Meeting at Night ,t h ep a t r i o t i cp o e m Home
Thoughts from Abroad and the children’s poem Pied Piper of
Hamelin .
Browning became in h is later years that curious
phenomenon, the Victorian sage –widely regarded for his
knowledge and his explorations of philosophical questions of great
resonance in Victorian life. He started attaining popularity at a later
stage of his life and Dramatis P ersonae (1860) was very
enthusiastically received. The Ring and the Book (1868 -69) was
highly acclaimed and is considered as one of the greatest work by
some critics.
4.4.2–THE TEXT
Last Ride Together by Robert Browning
I
I said –Then, dearest, since ’ti s so,
Since now at length my fate I know,
Since nothing all my love avails,
Since all, my life seemed meant for, fails,
Since this was written and needs must be –
My whole heart rises up to bless
Your name in pride and thankfulness!
Take back the hope you g ave,–I claim
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44–And this beside, if you will not blame,
Your leave for one more last ride with me.
II
My mistress bent that brow of hers;
Those deep dark eyes where pride demurs
When pity would be softening through,
Fixed me a breathing -while or two
With life or death in the balance: right!
The blood replenished me again;
My last thought was at least not vain:
I and my mistress, side by side
Shall be together, breathe and ride,
So, one day more am I deified.
Who knows but the world may end to -night?
III
Hush! if you saw some western cloud
All billowy -bosomed, over -bowed
By many benedictions –sun’s
And moon’s and evening -star’s at once –
And so, you, looking and loving best,
Conscious grew, your passion drew
Cloud, sunse t, moonrise, star -shine too,
Down on you, near and yet more near,
Till flesh must fade for heaven was here! –
Thus leant she and lingered –joy and fear!
Thus lay she a moment on my breast.
IV
Then we began to ride. My soul
Smoothed itself out, a long -cramped scroll
Freshening and fluttering in the wind.
Past hopes already lay behind.
What need to strive with a life awry?
Had I said that, had I done this,
So might I gain, so might I miss.
Might she have loved me? just as well
She might have hated, who can tell!
Where had I been now if the worst befell?
And here we are riding, she and I.
V
Fail I alone, in words and deeds?
Why, all men strive and who succeeds?
We rode; it seemed my spirit flew,
Saw other regions, cities new.
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45It h o u g h t , –All labour, yet no less
Bear up beneath their unsuccess.
Look at the end of work, contrast
The petty done, the undone vast,
This present of theirs with the hopeful past!
I hoped she would love me; here we ride.
VI
What hand and brain went ever paired?
What heart alike conceived and dared?
What act proved all its thought had been?
What will but felt the fleshly screen?
We ride and I see her bosom heave.
There’s many a crown for who can reach.
Ten lines, a statesman’s life in each!
The flag stuck on a heap of bones,
A soldier’s doing! what atones?
They scratch his name on the Abbey -stones.
My riding is better, by their leave.
VII
What does it all mean, poet? Well,
Your brains beat into rhythm, you tell
What we felt only; you expressed
You hold things beautiful the best,
And pace them in rhyme so, side by side.
’Tis something, nay ’tis much: but then,
Have you yourself what’s best for men?
Are you –poor, sick, old ere your time –
Nearer one whit yo ur own sublime
Than we who never have turned a rhyme?
Sing, riding’s a joy! For me, I ride.
VIII
And you, great sculptor –so, you gave
A score of years to Art, her slave,
And that’s your Venus, whence we turn
To yonder girl that fords the burn!
You acquies ce, and shall I repine?
What, man of music, you grown grey
With notes and nothing else to say,
Is this your sole praise from a friend,
”Greatly his opera’s strains intend,
Put in music we know how fashions end!”
Ig a v em yy o u t h ;b u tw er i d e ,i nf i n e .munotes.in

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46IX
Who knows what’s fit for us? Had fate
Proposed bliss here should sublimate
My being –had I signed the bond –
Still one must lead some life beyond,
Have a bliss to die with, dim -descried.
This foot once planted on the goal,
This glory -garland round my soul,
Could I descry such? Try and test!
I sink back shuddering from the quest.
Earth being so good, would heaven seem best?
Now, heaven and she are beyond this ride.
X
And yet –she has not spoke so long!
What if heaven be that, fair and strong
At life’s best, wi th our eyes upturned
Whither life’s flower is first discerned,
We, fixed so, ever should so abide?
What if we still ride on, we two
With life for ever old yet new,
Changed not in kind but in degree,
The instant made eternity, –
And heaven jus tp r o v et h a tIa n ds h e
Ride, ride together, for ever ride?
4.4.3–EXPLANATION
Stanza 1 begins with a lover getting finally rejected by his
lady-love after he waited for her for a long time. But because the
lover is sincere and true in his love, he does n ot have any ill -will for
his lady -love and, on the contrary, he tells his beloved that he has
been relieved of the uncertainty as he now knows that he would
never get her love. The speaker also tells that his beloved’s love
was the most meaningful and prec ious thing in his life and after he
has lost her love, his life has lost all its meaning and significance.
He believes in fate and accepts his rejection and suffering which he
believes was destined for him, feels proud that he had the
opportunity to love h er and enjoy her company for a long time.
Despite failure, the lover has neither any anger towards his beloved
nor does he blame her for anything. Rather he is grateful to her for
the beautiful and blissful moments they had together and he asks
God to ble ss her always. Though he has no hopes of ever getting
her love back in his life, he requests her for two wishes –firstly, he
should be allowed to cherish the memories of his love and
happiness during the courting period. And, secondly, if she
considers no thing offensive in this request, he wants to go on a last
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47In Stanza 2 the lady is in a dilemma as she is indecisive
whether to accept the request or reject it and for a moment she
bows down her head as if thinking deeply. Her pride is in co nflict
with her pity for her lover. She hesitates for a moment and these
brief moments seem like torture to the lover because if she accepts
his request it would mean life for him but if she refuses then it
would mean death for him. Finally, the lady accep ts his request
making the lover extremely happy. It seems as if the body has
regenerated the circulation of blood. The lover is now at peace as
he is going to enjoy bliss and his beloved’s company for one more
day. He hopes for the world to end that very n ight so that his
moment of bliss becomes eternal and in this way, he can be with
her forever.
Stanza 3 is about the description of the heavenly bliss which
the lover experiences when his beloved lies on his bosom and he
compares his experience with nature’ sj o ya n dh e a l i n gp o w e r .H e
feels like a man, who sees an evening cloud, swelling up like a sea -
wave, illuminated and made beautiful by the light of the setting Sun,
the Moon and the Stars. The man looks at the cloud, he is
passionately drawn towards it an d it seems as if the cloud was
gradually coming closer and closer to him. In such a moment of
ecstasy, he feels he has been transported to heaven and his body
has lost its physicality but at the same time he is afraid that his
lover would leave him anytime and that this moment of bliss will
finally come to an end forever.
Stanza 4 starts with the blissful experience of the lover when
he starts his journey with his beloved by his side. The poet
compares the lover’s soul to that of a furrowed paper which has
been kept like that for a long time and when exposed to the wind,
the paper opens up and the wrinkles get smoothened and it starts
fluttering in the wind like a bird. In the same way, the lover’s soul
has grown wrinkled due to grief of his failure in love .B u ta f t e r
encountering the last ride with his beloved, his soul experiences
tremendous pleasure and feels rejuvenated. The lover says that his
hope of attaining her love is a matter of the past and he feels that it
is no use regretting the past. It makes no sense to express his love
in different words with an expectation of winning her love. Maybe
this type of an approach could have led her to hate him instead of
loving him. He is happy that at least now she does not hate him;
she is only indifferent to h is love. He feels it as a blessing that he
has the pleasure of having the last ride with her.
In Stanza 5, the lover rides by his beloved’s side and thinks
about the remorseful state of humanity in the world. He consoles
himself with the thought that he is not the only person to fail and
suffer in life. It is obvious that not all men succeed in their efforts.
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48beloved. The lover does not want to complain about his failures but
enjoy the ride to the fullest in the company of his beloved. As he
rides, the landscape seems to him to have a different look and the
fields and the cities through which they are passing seem to him
more beautiful than before. It seems as if his own joy has
brightened th ee n t i r er e g i o n .
In Stanza 6, the lover, as he rides with his beloved,
continues to think about the world and says that brain and hand
cannot go together –Conception and Execution can never be
paired together. Man is not able to keep pace with his action st o
match with his ambitions. He plans a lot but achieves a little. The
lover feels that he has at least achieved a little success by being
able to ride with his beloved. He compares himself with a
statesman and a soldier. A statesman works hard all his l ife but all
his efforts are merely published in a book or as an obituary in
newspapers. Similarly a soldier dies fighting for his country and is
buried in the Westminster Abbey which is his only reward after
death and sometimes it is only an epitaph that i s raised in his
memory.
In Stanza 7 the lover compares his lot with that of a poet. He
believes that a poet’s reward is too small compared with his skills.
The poet composes sweet lyrics, thoughts of emotions of others,
views that men should achieve beaut iful things in life and in return
he gets very little and he dies in poverty in the prime of his life.
Compared to the poet, the lover considers himself luckier as he has
at least achieved the consolation of riding with his beloved for the
last time.
In S tanza 8 the lover considers himself superior to the
sculptor and the musician too. A sculptor devotes long years to art
and creates a beautiful statue of Venus, the Greek goddess of
youth and beauty. Through his art, he expresses his ideas of
beauty and el egance. However, the reward for his hard work is all
too less as people admire his work and praise it too but the moment
they see an actual girl, maybe even less in beauty, they turn away
from the statue. This shows that life is greater than art and so the
speaker says that in this case he is more successful than a sculptor
because he can ride with his beloved and the sculptor cannot have
the happiness he deserves. The lover then talks about the musician
whom he considers as unsuccessful as the sculptor. A musician
devotes his best years in composing sweet and wonderful music
but the only praise he receives is by his near and dear ones and
the tunes which once were popular are soon forgotten. The lover
considers himself happier and more successful than the m usician
also as he has the pleasure of enjoying the last ride with his
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49In the 9thStanza, the lover states his point that none
succeeds in this world, despite the best efforts –success in this life
means failure in the life to come. So if the lover is destined to enjoy
the supreme bliss in this world by getting the desired love of his
beloved, he would have nothing left to hope for in future. He feels
that he has reached his destination in this world and has achieved
the garland of victory by winning the love of his beloved. He may
have failed in his love but it means success in the other world. Now,
when he will die he will think of reuniting with his beloved after
death. If a man gets perfect happine ss in this world, heaven would
not be attractive to him. The lover believes that he would have the
highest bliss in heaven where he will meet his beloved there.
Stanza 10 describes the moments during the ride –the lover
was lost in his own thoughts while his beloved did not speak a
single word. But it did not make any difference to him as her
company was heavenly bliss for him. He wishes that the moment
should become everlasting so that they could continue to ride
together forever and ever and that would indeed be the ultimate
heavenly bliss for him.
4.4.4–SUMMARY
The poem is a monologue of a rejected lover exploring the
end of a love affair. The title suggests the last ride that the lover
has spent with his lady love. However, the poet wants to convey
through the narrator that rather than feeling sad about the end, he
should be happy for the love that he experienced and which will
always remain in his memory. The poet dwells on the significance
of the presen t as he concentrates on the ride. He contemplates on
why people attach so much significance to the past and future
rather than focusing on the present. The metaphor connotes living
life to the fullest in elation and ecstasy for the moment. Why do
people le ave room for doubts, suspicions, failure, misgivings that
haunt the present instead of enjoying every moment with love and
life? Every moment should be savoured in such a way as if there is
no space for lament and regret. The Last Ride Together makes
profo und statements concerning the irrelevance of the past in
relation to present emotions and sentiments. More specifically,
Browning discusses hopes that have not been fulfilled and places
them in direct contrast to present circumstances. By revealing the
idea that sentiments and events of the past often have little effect
on future outcomes, Browning suggests that life should not involve
dwelling on the past or hoping for the future but living in the
moment.
Thus through this poem, Browning expresses the vie wt h a t ,
the past is insignificant and that one may only live in the moment in
order to pursue happiness in life. The poem also indicates that lifemunotes.in

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50is a long journey that is best travelled with a special love.
Assuming every day as one's last can really pu t a new perspective
on everyday experiences and life in general. The juxtapositions of
city and ruins, hope for love and a last ride together, both illustrate
this idea dramatically. One can learn not to look back on what one
hoped for but only to look for ward at what one has at the present
moment.
4.4.5–COMMENTARY
The Last Ride Together by Robert Browning is a dramatic
monologue. In a dramatic monologue, a single person not the poet;
speaks out a speech that makes up the whole of the poem. The
first-person speaker in the poem is the mouthpiece of the poet but
not the poet himself. This is evident from the phrases like I said, I
know, my whole heart I claim, my mistress, my last thought, I miss,
I alone, I hoped, I gave my youth, I sign’d, etc. The poem
comprises of ten stanzas, each consisting of eleven lines and it
follows the rhyming pattern aabbcddeeec.
Moreover the poem presents a self -consolation and it is
based on the underlying theory of ‘blame it all on fate’. Of course
the poem talks about love and its failure but the positive speaker
thinks that failure is often inevitable. He is attempting to reduce his
pain by trying to restrain his desires. Words are so chosen to
convey the feeling of polite resignation and acceptance of defeat.
The word ‘sin ce’ is used five times in the same paragraph which
may indicate that Browning most probably got involved in an
emotional flow and lost control over his poetic polish of words.
Moreover, the diction is superficial and of superhuman psychology
because a man who has been ditched cannot have too many good
things to say about the former flame unless of course he is ironical
about it.
4.5 STOPPING BY THE WOODS ON A SNOWY
EVENING
4.5.1–THE POET
Robert Frost (1874 -1963) was an American poet whose
work was first published in England and then in America. He is
highly regarded for his realistic depictions of rural life and his
command of American colloquial speech. He uses the rural setting
of New En gland as a backdrop to examine complex social and
philosophical themes. He received four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry,
was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal for his poetic works,
was named Poet Laureate of Vermont and became one of
America’s rare ‘public literary figures, almost an artisan institution’.munotes.in

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51By the time Frost returned to America in 1915, he had
already published two collections, A Boy’s Will and North of Boston
and had also established his reputation. In a few years’ time he was
the most celeb rated poet in America and with each new book –
New Hampshire ,AF u r t h e rR a n g e ,Steeple Bush and In the
Clearing –his fame and honour increased. Although his work is
principally associated with the life and landscape of New England
and he was a poet of tra ditional verse forms and metrics and
remained aloof from the poetic movements and fashions of his
time, he is an ideally modern poet. Searching the dark meditations
on universal themes and portraying psychological complexity, his
work is infused with layer so fa m b i g u i t ya n di r o n y .
4.5.2–THE TEXT
Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost
Whose woods these are I think I know.
His house is in the village though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.
Mylittle horse must think it queer
To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.
He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sound’s the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.
The woods are lovely, dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.
4.5.3–EXPLANATION
In Stanza 1 the speaker stops his horse outside some woods
that belongs to a farmer he thinks he knows. He is getting late but
the scenery is so beautiful that he stops his horse to look around
and enjoy the marvellous nature around. He knows that the pers on
whose house it is must be in the village and so he would not know
that the traveller had stopped there to watch the beautiful woods fill
up with snow.
In the Stanza 2 the speaker expresses his own feelings and
brings out his reflections when he says t hat surely his little horse
will think it very strange and abnormal to stop at such a place in this
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52Stanza 3 speaks about the horse’s unease when he shakes
his harness bell with displeasure as if trying to ask the traveller
whether he has done some mistake. And at the background, to
create an eerie atmosphere the speaker talks about the only other
sound that is heard –the sound of sweet easy wind and the fluffy
flakes.
In Stanza 4 the speaker mo ves on emphasizing the beauty
of the woods but he also admits that he has to keep other promises
too–he can’t just stop and enjoy the beauty of nature. And he has
to travel for miles before he could relax himself with some sleep.
The repetition of the la st two lines shows his urgency and his
determination.
4.5.4–SUMMARY
Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening is definitely one of
the most famous, as well as one of the most referred poems of
Robert Frost. The poem consists of four identical constructed
stanzas where each line is iambic with four stressed syllables. It
consists of four quatrains that have the following rhyme
scheme: aaba ,bbcb ,ccdc ,dddd .T h ep o e m ’ s central narrative is
simple and the scene is discreet, even stark, without any kind of
elaboration or much description. A traveller pauses late one snowy
evening to admire the woods by which he passes. He reflects that
the owner of the woods, who lives i n the village, will not see him
stopping to ‘watch his woods fill up with snow.’
The speaker interferes with his reflections by imagining that
his ‘little horse must think it queer’ to stop without a farmhouse
nearby on the ‘darkest evening of the year.’ Then the speaker
expands this conceit, suggesting that fretfulness over the
inconvenient action causes the horse to shake his harness bells
and ask the traveller whether he has committed some mistake.
Hearing the horse’s jingling bells the speaker assumes that the
animal is worried about the cold and wants to keep going. Then, by
way of contrast, the speaker notes that ‘the only other sound’s the
sweep/ Of easy wind and downy flake.’
Something about the woods compels the speaker’s interest
and by the poem’ s end, as most critics note, one has the sense that
there is more to these woods than meets the eye. In the last verse,
the speaker acknowledges that the ‘woods are lovely, dark and
deep.’ He seems reluctant, however, to pursue this insight more
deeply, si nce he immediately observes that he has ‘promises to
keep, /And miles to go before I sleep’. Nonetheless, the central
focus of the poem is not the woods. Of more importance are the
inner sentiments of the speaker as he reflects about and
understands or may be fails to understand, why he stops and why
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53The poem ends obscurely and the reader learns very little
about the speaker –where is he coming from, where is he going or
why he stops in the dark and lonely woods, etc. nei ther does the
speaker permit himself to reflect too deeply about the occasion and
so one can only speculate and wonder at the behavior of this
unknown speaker.
4.5.5–COMMENTARY
The speaker most probably is returning home from far away
and it is gradual ly getting late. Riding his horse he has come to a
place where there is very beautiful scenery and he stops the horse
and looks around to enjoy the wonderful facets of nature. There is a
lake on one side and a small forest on the other where snow is
fallin g like soft cotton. The lake is almost frozen and it’s gradually
becoming very dark. Except for the whining sound of the wind over
the flakes of snow everything else is very quiet. Since the traveller
stops the horse in an unusual place, where there is no house
nearby, the horse shakes its head, as if to ask whether it has
committed some mistake. Then the traveller becomes conscious
that he has a long way to go before he gets home to sleep. “The
woods are l ovely, dark and deep” but he has promises to keep. We
do not know whether the promises were made with someone or
they are his own commitments but anyway he cannot stop there, he
has to go. It is a simple romantic poem with levels of complex
allegories. The journey in the poem is an allegory of the journey of
life and is, thus, a spiritual journey.
On a literal level, the poem is ‘romantic’ in subject and
theme. The speaker is probably returning home and is crossing
lovely woods on a pleasant evening. This makes him feel like
stopping there and enjoying the beauty and silence of the place.
And the necessity to go ahead makes him regret that he has no
other option but to go. The speaker romanticizes whatever is
passing by –time and pleasure. Symbolically sp eaking the journey
of the speaker is man’s journey of life. The horse is like time and it
is obvious that riding on the horse it is not possible for the speaker
to stop and enjoy the intricacies of nature.
Certain clues in the poem make the readers feel t hat even
the journey is not of a simple life but the journey of a religious or
spiritual life. The speaker is a religious man who has ‘promises to
keep’. The lovely woods are not only beautiful but also dark and the
darkness could be the implication of ‘co nfusing’ evils on the way of
the religious man. The attractions of the journey are wayside
temptation of worldly life and the horse is his conscience or reason.
During the journey the man must not fall victim to ‘easy’ wind and
comfortable looking downy f lakes because though their softness is
tempting they are deceptivesince they are also cold, dark and evil.
In this sense of the religious allegory or symbolism, the speaker is amunotes.in

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54kind of Everyman on his Christian journey and he is resolved to go
ahead after almost being tempted and stopped by the attractions of
worldly pleasures.
The poem is also very universal and philosophical in its
allegorical suggestions about life, time and dedication to a goal or
vocation, consciousness and so on, including the roman tic theme,
‘life journey’ ideas and religious themes, these general suggestions
can be called ‘philosophical’. The horse is the will power persistent
in the sub consciousness of a man and the journey could be a
vocation (profession) like poetry, art, acade mic, pursuit, personal
ambition, a commitment to some ideal or any other dedication.
Everyone has promises to keep and so without stopping one has to
flow with time.
4.6 LET’S SUM UP
The three poems take the readers into the core of a ballad
by Campbell, the dramatic monologue of Browning and a lyric by
Frost. The poems are significant and suggestive, expressive and
assertive. Every poem communicates a wonderful message of love,
commitment and forgiveness and enhances in the readers the
suffering in late realization, the happiness in yielding oneself to the
present moment and the determination of keeping a promise.
4.7 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1.Lord Ullin’s Daughter by Thomas Campbell is an appealing
poem on love, fear, death and suffering. Comment.
2.Robert Browning’s dramatic monologue The Last Ride Together
expresses the emotional conflict of the speaker and his ultimate
self-consolation. Justify.
3.Critically appreciate Robert Frost’s lyrical poem Stopping by the
Woods on a Snowy Evening .
4.8 REFERENCES
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
2. www.sparknotes.com › SparkNotes › Poetry Study Guides
3. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets
4. https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/k/keats -poems
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55Unit -5
A CRITICAL STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE’S
TWELFTH NIGHT PART -1
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction to William Shakespeare
5.2 Summary of the plot
5.3 Questions
5.0 OBJECTIVES
To acquaint the students with the playwright and his works
To help them understand the detailed summary of the play
through its plot
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright
who is considered one of the greatest writers to ever use the
English language. He is also the most famous playwright in the
world, with his plays being translated in over 50 languages and
performed across the globe for audiences of all ages. Known
colloquially as "The Bard" or "The Bard of Avon," Shakespeare was
also an actor and the crea tor of the Globe Theatre, a historical
theatre, and company that is visited by hundreds of thousands of
tourists every year.
His works span tragedy, comedy, and historical works, both
in poetry and prose. And although the man is the most -recognized
playw right in the world, very little of his life is actually known. No
known autobiographical letters or diaries have survived to modern
day, and with no surviving descendants, Shakespeare is a figure
both of magnificent genius and mystery.
This has led to many interpretations of his life and works,
creating a legend out of the commoner from Stratford -upon -Avon
who rose to prominence and in the process wrote many of the
seminal works that provide the foundation for the current English
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56Life Before the Stage
The exact date of Shakespeare's birth is unknown, but it is
accepted that he was born in April of 1564 in Stratford -upon -Avon
in Warwickshire, England, and baptized in the same month. He was
the son of John Shakespeare, an alderma n, and Mary Arden, the
daughter of the family's landlord and a well -respected farmer. He
was one of eight children and lived to be the eldest surviving son of
the family.
Shakespeare was educated at the King's New School, a free
chartered grammar school t hat was located in Stratford. There he
studied the basic Latin text and grammar, much of which was
standardized across the country by Royal decree. He was also
known to partake in the theatre while at the school as was the
custom at the time. As a commoner , Shakespeare's education was
thought to finish at the grammar school level as there is no record
of him attending university, which was a luxury reserved for upper -
class families.
In 1582, an 18 -year-old Shakespeare married Anne
Hathaway, who, on the occ asion of her wedding, was 26 years old
and already with child. Hathaway gave birth to the couple's first
child six months later, a daughter named Susanna, with twins,
named Hamnet and Judith, following two years later in 1585.
Hamnet died at the age of 11 from unknown reasons.
After the birth of his twins in 1585, Shakespeare
disappeared from public record until 1592, when his works began
appearing on the London stage. These seven years are known as
"Shakespeare's Lost Years," and have been the source of v arious
stories that remain unverified, including a salacious story involving
Shakespeare escaping Stratford prosecution for deer poaching.
This story, among others, are solely entertainment and are not
considered as part of the canon that makes up the play wright's
personal life.
William Shakespeare first made his appearance on the
London stage, where his plays would be written and performed,
around 1592, although the exact date is unknown. He was,
however, well known enough to be attacked by critics in
newspapers, and thus was considered to be already an established
playwright.
After the year 1594, Shakespeare's plays were solely
performed by a company owned by a group of actors known as the
Lord Chamberlain's Men, which became London's leading
company. A fter Queen Elizabeth's death in 1603, the company was
given a royal patent that renamed it the King's Men, named so after
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57Shakespeare, along with a group of players that acted in his
play, created his own theatre on the River Thames in 1599 and
named it the Globe Theatre. After that, a record of property
purchases and investments made by Shakespeare showed the
playwright had become a very wealthy man, so much so that he
bought properties in London and Stratford for himself and his
family, as he spent most of his time in London.
It was in 1594 that the first known quartos of Shakespeare's
plays were published, solidifying his reputation by 1598 when his
name became the selling point in new productions. This led to his
success as both an actor on stage and a playwright, and his name
was published on the title page of his plays.
Shakespeare continued to work with his company of men at
the Globe Theatre until around 1610, the year that he retired from
working on the stage. He, however, continued to support the Globe
Theatre, including buying apartments for playwrights and actors to
live in, all of which were near to the theatre
William Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616, and was buried
at the Holy Trinity Church in Stratford two days later, with a curse
written on his tombstone to ward off those who would disturb his
bones.
The Shakespeare Canon
Shakespeare was noted both for poetry and plays, with both
mediums serving different needs; the plays were related to the
theatrical fashion that was on trend while his poetry served to
provide storytelling in erotic or romantic ways, culminating in a
canon of work that is as diverse in language as the issues of
human nature that the works portray.
Plays
William Shakespeare wrote at least 37 plays that scholars
know of, with most of them labeled is comedies, histories, or
tragedies. The earliest play that is directly attributed to
Shakespeare is the trilogy of "King Henry VI," with Richard III also
being w ritten around the same time, between 1589 and 1591. The
last play was a collaboration, assumed to be with John Fletcher,
known as "The Two Noble Kinsmen."
Shakespeare often wrote play in a genre that was in vogue
at the time, with his plays beginning with the histories, including the
above -mentioned works as well as "Pericles,""King John," the dual
volumes of both "Henry IV" and Henry V, which were written at later
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58Rom histories written in the late 1580s to the early 1590s,
Shakespeare moved into c omedies, which were described as such
for their comic sequences and pairs of plots that intertwined with
each other. Among the most well known are A Midsummer's Night
Dream, Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like
It, and Twelfth Night. Int erestingly, two tragedies bookend
Shakespeare's comedic era -Romeo and Juliet were written at the
beginning of the 1590s, and Julius Caesar was written at the end of
the era.
For the last portion of his writing career, Shakespeare
focused his work on tr agedies and "problem" plays. In this era,
which is acknowledged as the playwright's best era, he wrote the
works called Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Coriolanus, and Macbeth,
among others. These are the works that are most in production
today, both on stage and in film.
When looking at a chronology of Shakespeare's plays, it is
clear that Shakespeare changed the subjects of his plays as he
grew in prominence and then returned to a more serene life.
Moving from historical subjects to a more playful side and then,
finally, into plays where plots would result in a sense of forgiveness
and serenity, Shakespeare's evolution as both a man and a writer is
evident. In fact, the playwright's devotion to the English language
and his rebellion against it has led to fas cinating studies done by
leading literature scholars.
Poems and Sonnets
There are two volumes of poetry and over 150 sonnets that
are attributed to Shakespeare. It is thought that although
Shakespeare was a poet throughout his lifetime, he turned to
poetr y most notably during 1593 and 1594 when a plague forced
theatres in London to shut down.
The volumes of narrative poems that Shakespeare released
during those years were called Venus and Adonis and The Rape of
Lucrece. Both volumes focused on the proble ms surrounding
uncontrollable lust and the guilt associated with it afterwards and
were very well received during his lifetime, partially for their erotic
tone. In this vein, Shakespeare also wrote A Lover's Complaint,
which was included in the first editi on of Shakespeare's sonnets,
which were released in 1609.
Shakespeare's sonnets were a collection of over 150 works
that were published late in his life and without any indication of
when each of the pieces was composed. It is widely thought that
the sonn ets were a part of a private diary that was never meant to
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59The sonnets have a contrasting set of subjects -one set
chronicles the poet's lust for a married woman with a dark
complexion, known as The Dark Lady, while the other describes a
conflicted or confused love for a young man, known as the "fair
youth." While it is not known or confirmed, many in literature circles
believe that the sonnets accurately portray the heart of the poet,
leading the public to speculate on Shakespeare's views on religion,
sex, marriage, and life.
Critics have praised the sonnets as being profoundly
intimate and meditating on the values of love, lust, procreation, and
death. Now a days, Shakespeare is ranked as all -time most popular
English poets on history, along with Emily Dickinson, Robert Frost,
and Walt Whitman.
Shakespeare's influence on art, literature, language and the
vast array of the creative arts has long been known and
documented. He is the most -read playwright in the Western
Hemisphere, and the English language is littered with quotes and
phrases the originated from his works. He is also the inventor of the
iambic pentameter, a form of poetry that is still widely used today.
He is also one of the most influent ial figures in English
literature, having had a profound impact on everyone from Herman
Melville and Charles Dickens to Agatha Christie and Anthony
Burgess. But his influence did not stop at just the arts -the
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud used Hamlet as th ef o u n d a t i o nf o r
many of his theories on human nature, and his influence can be felt
in painting and opera as well, particularly from the operas of
Giuseppe Verdi and the whole community of Romantic and Pre -
Raphaelite painters.
But Shakespeare was, and still is, the most prominent
influential figure in language. Phrases such as "breaking the ice" or
"heart of gold" are colloquial now, but are also known to have
originated in Shakespeare's plays and sonnets. There are over
seven d ozen examples that can be taken from common life and be
directly attributed to Shakespeare, meaning that much of how
people speak to each other now has a history that dates back to the
17th century.
Aside from phrases, it is also common knowledge that th e
dramatist introduced upwards of 1,700 original words to the English
language, which, during the 16th and 17th centuries, was not
standardized. In fact, words such as lonely, frugal, dwindle, and
more originate from Shakespeare, who transformed English in to the
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605.2 SUMMARY OF THE PLOT
Orsino, the Duke of lllyria, is in love with his neighbour, the
Countess Olivia. She has sworn to avoid men’s company for seven
years while she mourns the death of her brother, so reject sh i m .
Nearby a group of sailors arrive on shore with a young woman,
Viola, who has survived a shipwreck in a storm at sea. Viola
mourns the loss of her twin brother but decides to dress as a boy to
get work as a page to Duke Orsino.
Despite his rejection Orsino sends his new page Cesario
(Viola in disguise) to woo Olivia on his behalf. Viola goes unwillingly
as she has already fallen in love at first sight with the duke. Olivia is
attracted by the ‘boy’ and she sends her pompous steward,
Malvolio, after h im with a ring.
Olivia’s uncle, Sir Toby Belch, her servant Maria, and Sir
Toby’s friend, Sir Andrew Aguecheek, who is also hoping to woo
Olivia, and is being led on by Sir Toby, who is trying to fleece him of
his money, all plot to expose the self -love o fM a l v o l i o .B ym e a n so f
a false letter they trick him into thinking his mistress Olivia loves
him. Malvolio appears in yellow stockings and cross -garters,
smiling as they have told him to in the letter. Unaware of the trick
the Countess is horrified and ha s Malvolio shut up in the dark as a
madman.
Meanwhile Viola’s twin brother, Sebastian, who has also
survived the shipwreck, comes to Illyria. His sea -captain friend,
Antonio, is a wanted man for piracy against Orsino. The
resemblance between Cesario and S ebastian leads the jealous Sir
Andrew to challenge Cesario to a duel. Antonio intervenes to
defend Cesario whom he thinks is his friend Sebastian, and is
arrested. Olivia has in the meantime met and become betrothed to
Sebastian.
Cesario is accused of des erting both Antonio and Olivia
when the real Sebastian arrives to apologise for fighting Sir Toby.
Seeing both twins together, all is revealed to Olivia. Orsino’s fool,
Feste, brings a letter from Malvolio and on his release the
conspirators confess to hav ing written the false letter. Malvolio
departs promising revenge. Maria and Sir Toby have married in
celebration of the success of their device against the steward.
The play ends as Orsino welcomes Olivia and Sebastian
and, realising his own attraction to Cesario, he promises that once
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61ACT-WISE SUMMARY OF THE PLOT
ACT ONE
Scene one
This scene introduces us to the Duke, who is in love with a
girl called Olivia. His servant goes to ask her wether or not she
would like to go out with the Duke. The message back from her
servant is that Olivia will not be seen in public for seven years
because of the death of her brother.
Scene Two
After a shipwreck, Viola finds herself of Illyria, a coastal
town. She believes that her brother has been killed in the
shipwreck, and that she will never get off this island. After learning
about the Duke, she arranges with the captain of the ship to
disguise herself and to serve the Duke. He may then fall in love
with her.
Scene Three
Sir Toby and Maria are talking to each other about Olivia’s
decision to morn for seven years. They are also talking about Sir
Toby’s drinking and friend, Sir Andrew, a foolish knight that has
been brought to the castle as a suitor to Olivia. Sir Andrew says he
is going to leave, but Sir Toby persuades him not to, as Olivia is not
interested in the Duke. Maria leaves, and Andrew and Toby dance.
Scene Four
Viola, already disguised as Cesario (she is referred to as
Cesario instead of Vio la throughout the play), has already became
a servant to the Duke. Her first job is to try and persuade Olivia to
go out with the Duke. Viola has fallen in love with the Duke.
Scene Five
Maria and Feste the clown are talking when Olivia enters
with Malvol io. She has a conversation with Feste, and he gets the
better of her. Maria announces that a young ‘man’ (Cesario) is here
to see Olivia. She says that if he is from the Duke, she will not see
him. Maria returns and says the young man will not take no for an
answer, so Olivia meets him with Maria at her side. Cesario is very
convincing about the Duke’s love, but Olivia is not unstuck. She
dismisses Cesario, and when by herself, shows that she is in love
with ‘him’. She sends Malvolio with a ring Cesario app arently left
behind, and said he should return tomorrow.
ACT TWO
Scene One
Sebastian, Violia’s identical twin brother comes to shore
after the shipwreck, saved by Antonio. He wants to be Sebastian’s
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62himself. Scene Two Malvolio runs after Cesario to give him the
ring. He denies that he gave it to her, and so Malvolio puts it on the
ground in front of him. He (Viola) thinks that Olivia is in love with
‘him’.
Scene Three
Sir Toby and Si r Andrew are talking loudly. Feste joins them
and sings a romantic song for them. The other two then join in.
Maria comes down and tells them that they are making too much
noise. Malvolio then enters and tells Sir Toby that if he doesn’t stop
his drinking, he will be banned from the house by Olivia, his niece.
He then leaves, as does Feste. Maria makes up a plan that she will
leave a note that talks of Olivia’s love for Malvolio.
Scene Four
The Duke, still lovesick calls for some music. Feste arrives
and s ings a lovesick song back to him. He leaves, and Cesario and
the Duke talk. Cesario is told to go back and try to woo Olivia.
Scene Five
In this scene, the note is set for Malvolio. Sirs Toby and
Andrew and Fabian who hates Malv olio, watch him behind a tree.
As Malvolio walks into the scene he is thinking what it would be like
to be married to Olivia. He finds the note, and goes to do what the
note says, which is to dress in yellow cross garter stockings.
ACT THREE
Scene One
Inthis scene, Cesario again goes to Olivia. She talks to
Feste and Sirs Toby and Andrew. Olivia then comes out and
confesses her love for Cesario. ‘He’ then runs away as Olivia
continues to pledge her love.
Scene Two
In this scene, Sir Andrew is attempting to leave the castle, as
he believes that Cesario has made more progress towards the love
of Olivia. Sir Toby and Fabian persuade him to stay, and convince
sir Andrew to challenge Cesario to a fight. Maria then enters and
tells them all about Malvolio.
Scene Three
Antonio and Sebastian go to an Inn and Antonio gives
Sebastian his purse in case he wants to buy something. Antonio
reveals that he is in trouble with the Duke.
Scene Four
Olivia is pondering how she will invite Cesario to her house.
Malvolio ent ers, and he is wearing yellow cross -gartered stockings.
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63understanding. He then leaves to let Cesario in. Meanwhile, Sir
Andrew shows Maria, Sir Toby and Fabian his letter to Cesario.
They urge him on. Sir Toby delivers the challenge to Cesario, and
‘he’ is very worried. Sir Toby tells Cesario that Andrew is the best
fighter in the country. He tells Andrew the same about Cesario.
They start to fight. Antonio sees this, and, mistaking Cesario for
Sebasti an fights for ‘him’. He is then arrested by the police. He asks
Cesario for his purse back, and Cesario doesn’t know what he is
saying. He then calls Cesario Sebastian, which gives her/him a
hope. Toby and Andrew see this, and are disgusted.
ACT FOUR
Scen eO n e
Feste goes to collect Cesario, and sees Sebastian. He takes
him to Olivia’s house mistaking him. When he gets there, Andrew
hits Sebastian, also mistaking him. The latter then smacks Andrew.
Toby draws his sword, and is quickly beaten. Olivia comes o ut and
shouts at Toby. She takes Sebastian in side, and he is in love with
her.
Scene Two
Malvolio is locked up in the dungeon, as everyone thinks he
is mad. Feste, dresses up as Sir Topaz the Curate, and goes and
teases Malvolio. The latter asks for pen and ink, but Feste refuses.
He then leaves.
Scene Three
Sebastian, although concerned about Antonio, can’t get over
Olivia’s behaviour. She then appears with a priest, and asked
Sebastian to marry her, mistaking him for Viola. He agrees.
ACT FIVE
Scene One
This long scene brings into conclusion all of the plots and the
sub-plots. Feste and Fabian are discussing a letter, when the Duke
enters to court Olivia in person. Antonio enters with his guards.
Viola (Cesario) points out that was the man that saved her from
Andrew. The Duke recognizes Antonio for his past troubles as a
pirate, and demands an explanation. He says that he and
Sebastian were inseparable for the last three months. Cesario has
been working for the Duke for the last three months, and so Antonio
is mad. At this time, Olivia enters and calls Viola tardy, and rejects
the Duke’s love. Viola and the Duke turn to go, but Olivia calls Viola
husband. The priest backs this up. Sirs Andrew and Toby enter,
and say Cesario beat them. Sebastian en ters and tells Antonio not
to worry, and all stare at the twins before them. Viola and Sebastian
are reunited. The Duke pleads his love to Viola, as Olivia is
married. Feste enters with Malvolio’s letter, and Malvolio is called
for. Malvolio calls Olivia a liar for writing that letter. She says that itmunotes.in

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64was written by Maria. Fabian confesses the plot to Malvolio, and
says that Sir Toby is married to Maria. Malvolio vows his revenge
on ‘The whole lot of you’, and Feste finishes the scene and play
with a song.
5.3 QUESTIONS
1) Attempt a summary of Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night
2) How are the lost twins reconciled at the end of the play
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65Unit -6
A CRITICAL STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE’S
TWELFTH NIGHT -PART -2
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Analysis of Characters
6.2 Symbols
6.3 Analysis of Themes
6.4 Questions
6.0 OBJECTIVES
To make students understand the various characters in the play
To acquaint the students with the Themes and motifs
6.1 ANALYSIS OF CHARACTERS
ORSINO, Duke of Illyria
OLIVIA, a rich Countess
VIOLA, in love with the Duke
SIR ANDREW AGUECHEEK
MALVOLIO, Steward to Olivia
MARIA, Olivia’s Woman
SEBASTIAN, Brother to Viola
ANTONIO, a Sea Captain, Friend to Sebastian
AS e aC a p t a i n ,F r i e n dt oV i o l a
VALENTINE, CURIO, Gentlemen attending on the Duke
FABIAN, Servant to Olivia
FESTE, a Clown, Servant to Olivia
Lords, Priests, Sailors, Officers, Musicians, and other Attendants
ANALYSIS OF MAJOR CHARACTERS
Orsino
Orsino, the Duke and Count of Illyria, is ay o u n gm a nd e e p l y
and fashionably in love with Olivia. Her rejection of him leaves him
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66Rather than press his suit in person, he sends messengers
to Olivia, and it is in fact quite possible that he has never actually
met her, merely seen her at a distance. Now that he is in love, he
no longer hunts, but he has a deep love of music that he frequently
indulges in. He has a great affection for his newly -acquired page,
Cesario, and gives him sage advice about love and women. He
also uses Cesario as a messenger to Olivia. He was not always so
weary, and has fought in sea -battles, including one against Antonio.
Discovering that Cesario is loved by Olivia, he swears to drag them
apart. Discovering that they are marrie d, he turns his rage against
Cesario in person. Discovering that Cesario is in fact a woman, who
loves him dearly and is not married to Olivia, he decides to marry
her instead.
Viola: The Fulcrum of Action
The dramatic world of Twelfth Night is essentially built up on
a constant conflict -between Imagination and reality, disguise and
actuality. Within such a framework, the characters act and interact
to generate the essential comic vision of Shakespeare. Vio la, in this
context, is presented as the fulcrum of action, since it is around her
that the plot develops and the drama unfolds. Being a “non -Illyrian”
from the very beginning, she is placed outside the realm of
misguided perceptions that the citizens of I llyria possess, thereby
becoming the epitome of practical sensibility.
From the very beginning, Viola shows her mark of
intelligence even in her dealings with the sea captain. Despite her
grief for her brother who is considered dead, and her despair in
being left alone on an unknown land, she suppresses her passion
and even pays the captain for his help. This action, apparently
simple, is significant since it shows that Viola is prepared to take up
the challenges of the patriarchal society in her own right .E v e ni n
the quickness of mind in which she decides to serve Orsino proves
her capability to act strongly, independent of any active male
assistance.
This brings up issues, which the modern critics prefer to
classify as feminist issues. Indeed, the chara cter of Viola proves to
be the strongest character in the whole play. This is not something
unusual in Shakespeare who created characters like Portia,
Rosalind and even Lady Macbeth who often acted more strongly
than their male counterparts. However, these characters were often
disguised as men (even Lady Macbeth invokes the spirits to ‘unsex’
her to make her bolder). Viola, (alias Cesario) too assumes a
masculine identity which however, fails to conceal her feminine
aspects completely.
Orsino invariably r esponds to her charms unconsciously: "
Diana’s lip/ Is not more smooth and rubious. Thy small pipe/ Is asmunotes.in

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67the maiden’s organ, shrill and sound,/ And all is semblative a
woman’s part."
Ironically she has to be the Duke’s messenger to Lady Olivia
even when she herself is in love with Orsino. However, the sincerity
and sense of moral responsibility makes her carry out the task but
at the same time the manner of executing the Duke’s command
leads to completely adverse consequences -Olivia falls in love with
Viola disguised as Cesario. It is at this point of realization that Viola
appears to be shaken with misgivings but her inherent wisdom
makes her leave things in the hands of Time.
Sebastian
Sebastian is Viola’s twin brother. After the shipwreck, he was
rescued by Antonio, and spent three months in his company.
Deciding that he cannot continue moping over his sister’s
death, he sets forth for Orsino’s court, but on arriving in Illyria he
discovers that Antonio has followed him. He proceeds to have a
very con fusing day, where his enjoyment of the usual touristy
activities of sightseeing are continually interrupted by a series of
mad people who claim to know him, including a pair of insulting
ones with whom he almost ends up in a fight. His bafflement and
belie f that all Illyrians are insane do not stop him from following the
beautiful woman who breaks up the fight, however. He is not
entirely unconvinced that he’s dreaming, but can find no good
reason not to follow this woman and the priest she drags in, and s o
goes along with her plans of secret marriage. Meeting his two
opponents again, he shows them no mercy, breaks their heads,
and rushes to apologize to his wife —only to discover that his sister
is alive and that Olivia originally fell in love with her, no th i m .h e
confusion is quickly cleared up, and all is well. Sebastian seems an
uncomplicated fellow, as quick to anger as to calming down, loyal
and generally well -disposed.
Antonio
Antonio is a sea captain. Though considered a pirate by
Illyrians, he con siders himself an honorable opponent.
Though due to his history of capturing Illyrians ships, he is
not very welcome in Orsino’s lands, he knows which is the best inn
in town. He is deeply infatuated with Sebastian, whom he saved
from drowning, to the extent of following him to Illyria despite the
personal danger to him. He is shocked and wounded when
Sebastian (as he thinks) later refuses to ackno wledge knowing him,
let alone having borrowed his purse. When the real Sebastian
rushed up to embrace him and return his money, he is deeply
confused, and incapable of telling the difference between the twins.
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68married since they last saw each other that afternoon, is uncertain.
Generally he joins in with the reveling, if in a bit of a lonely way; but
it is not impossible that everyone forgets about him and that he’s
executed after all.
Sir Toby Belch
Sir Toby Belch is Olivia’s uncle and something of a minor -
league Falstaff. A penniless drunkard who sets stock by his nobility
of birth, with a taste for pickled herrings that likely leave him
flatulent, he makes himself quite at home at his niece’s .
He has the full confidence of Sir Andrew, whom he considers
a fool, and can play him like a charm. This allows him easy access
to Sir Andrew’s money. He has managed to convince Sir Andrew
that he has a chance at Olivia’s hand. Though most of what Sir
Toby does appears to be purely for his own entertainment, he is
quite capable of moments of genuine nastiness, reminding Malvolio
of the difference in their social class, tying the steward up and
having him locked in a dark room, putting Sir Andrew in situat ions
that could lead to his serious injury or death, and in the end telling
Sir Andrew to his face what he is. Sir Toby is quick to pull his
sword, though we have no evidence as to whether he has any
prowess with it. Taken with Maria’s wit and prank -planni ng ability,
he marries her.
Feste
Feste was Olivia’s father’s jester, and is now hers, though it
appears that he wanders around a bit.
An excellent singer, he also plays the pipe and tabor. He is
not especially tall, nor especially thin. An expert in wor dplay, he
attempts to bring Olivia out of her melancholy and mourning,
though this brings him Malvolio’s scorn. His wordplay is also useful
in convincing people to give him money. Though he joins in the plot
against Malvolio, it is clear that his first loy alty is to Olivia: he runs
to find her when Sir Toby and Sir Andrew set upon Cesario, and
refuses to let Fabian read the letter the steward sends Olivia from
his prison, apparently thinking the prank has gone long enough.
When Malvolio is freed, however, F este does make certain to
remind him of the scorn he has poured on his underlings. He
appears to be the only member of Olivia’s household who thinks
she should be cheered up. As he was her father’s jester, it is likely
that he has known her all her life.
Olivia
Olivia is an orphaned, gray -eyed countess who has sworn to
remain in mourning for seven years after the recent death of her
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69Though aware of all his qualities, she cannot fall in love with
Orsino, despite his pestering her with love letters .S h ei sf o n do f
Feste, relies on Malvolio, and has her patience strained by her
uncle Toby. She is nevertheless caring and patient, as
demonstrated in her treatment of Malvolio when he appears to lose
his mind. She has few illusions about the world, being as well -
aware of Malvolio’s defects as of her uncle’s drunkenness as of her
own mind. She is ready to fall topsy -turvy in love with Cesario,
however, bowled over by his wit and willingness to toss away the
script. Despite his rejection of her, she begs hi mt or e t u r n ,h o p i n gt o
bring him to love her by degrees –not entirely unlike Orsino. She is
quite capable of losing her temper, especially when her uncle is on
the verge of fighting with Cesario. She is similarly impulsive enough
that when Cesario suddenl y starts treating her well, she rushes to
find a priest who will marry them in secret. She is therefore deeply
hurt when he later denies this and runs away after Orsino, swearing
he loves the Duke more than he does her. This confusion is cleared
up when it is discovered that the Cesario Olivia fell for is in fact a
woman by the name of Viola, while the one who was taken with her
and married her is Viola’s twin brother Sebastian. She is somewhat
shocked at this, but accepts that Viola, who will now be marryi ng
Orsino, will be her sister.
Malvolio
Malvolio is the Lady Olivia's steward and the target of a
major prank. Throughout the play, he's characterized as a fun -
hating and overly serious character with no sense of humor. What
he wants most of all is status , mostly so he can make other
characters stop doing things he considers frivolous and silly.
Because he can't take a joke, his efforts to improve his own position
in the world make him an easy target for the other characters and
drive his role in the plot and humor of the play.
During the Christmas feast, the other characters give
Malvolio a forged letter that tricks him into believing that Olivia is in
love with him and wants him to walk around wearing weird yellow
stockings and smiling. This plays right into Malvolio's desire to
improve his status: if he can marry Olivia, he'll have it made! But in
fact, Olivia wants exactly the opposite -she hates the color yellow,
and her brother just died, so seeing Malvolio acting obnoxiously
happy all the time makes her think he must be crazy. She assumes
he's gone crazy and has him imprisoned, and the other characters
have a good time making fun of him before the play ends.
Malvolio's characterization is central to the plot, because his
personality is what makes th e trick work. Throughout the play,
Malvolio's lines characterize him as a very stern person who hates
anything he perceives as silly or frivolous. They explain why his plot
arc works and contribute to the humor of the trick.munotes.in

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70Sir Andrew Aguecheek
Sir Andrew is a friend of Sir Toby Belch, the uncle of Lady
Olivia in Shakespeare's comedic play, Twelfth Night. Sir Andrew is
known as a dunce, and he follows Sir Toby around. He is at Lady
Olivia's home to court her and doesn't have much success in that
regard. Si r Andrew is a comedic character, and he takes part in an
elaborate joke on Malvolio, Olivia's steward. However, in the end,
Sir Andrew is left alone, without the girl, and missing some of his
precious money. I bet this makes you feel even worse about your
wealthy friend, but maybe not enough to pay for your own popcorn
at the movies.
Sir Andrew arrives at Lady Olivia's house with Sir Toby,
ready to court and woo her. This plan immediately runs into a snag,
specifically that Olivia does not want to see anyo ne, as she is in
mourning for her father and her brother. Sir Andrew appears from
the start to not be the brightest of fellows, and he immediately
begins drinking and acting badly with Sir Toby, who appears to be
using him at times.
Sir Andrew joins Feste the clown, Maria, and Sir Toby in
playing a joke on Malvolio that is a significant subplot in the play.
They trick Malvolio into believing that Olivia is leaving him
messages of love, causing Malvolio to look foolish in front of Olivia.
This does not impr ove Sir Andrew's chances with Olivia, however.
In fact, she has been busy falling in love with Cesario, who is
actually Viola in disguise! This infuriates Sir Andrew, who
challenges Cesario/Viola to a duel, egged on by Sir Toby. However,
Viola finds out th at her brother Sebastian is alive, which confuses
Sir Andrew. Granted, it appears that most things confuse Sir
Andrew.
Valentine
Valentine is one of Orsino’s attendants. He was sent to
Olivia as a messenger of love, but was not allowed to speak to her.
He brings back the news that she has pledged to mourn a
full seven years for her brother. He also advises Cesario (Viola)
that he (she) is in a good position, and that Orsino’s favors are not
inconstant.
Curio
Curio is one of Orsino’ s attendants. He seeks to distract
Orsino by taking him to hunt, but Orsino refuses.
He knows Feste, and is sent to find him so that he can sing a
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716.2 SYMBOLS
Twelfth Night has symbolic objects such as clothes, love
letters, money, and jewels.
Viola’s boy costume symbolizes her identity change. Viola’s boy
costume is her transformation from being an aristocratic woman
to being a handsome servant boy named Cesario.
Maria’s love letter to Malvolio symbolizes decept ion. Maria fools
Malvolio into thinking that Olivia is in love with him by imitating
Olivia’s handwriting. Also, Viola’s miscommunication causes
Olivia to fall in love with Cesario (Viola’s disguise) after she
delivers Orsino’s love messages to her. The pu rpose of sending
Viola to Olivia was to convince her that she should accept
Orsino’s love; however, Olivia ends up falling in love in with
Cesario (Viola’s disguise) instead of Orsino.
Olivia’s ring and pearl symbolizes her expression of love. Olivia
tries to gain Cesario’s affection by bribing him with jewels. She
uses her ring and pearl to profess her love to Cesario.
Feste (the clown) is a symbolic character. He symbolizes the
hidden wisdom that lies within all of us. Under his foolish antics,
Feste poss esses a innate gift that he indirectly expresses
towards the characters. He does not want to break away from
his character and successfully perform his foolishness at the
right timing and in appropriate situations. He is fully aware that
he is smart, but h ed o e sn o tw a n tt h a ta t t r i b u t et ot a k eo v e rh i s
character as a clown.
All of the symbols in the story relates to how love can be
complicated. If love is not expressed effectively, then it will lead
to misunderstandings. Overall, the symbols enhance the story’s
plot and reveals how each character express their feelings.
6.3ANALYSIS OF THEMES
Theme of Love
In the play “Twelfth Night,” Shakespeare explores and
illustrates the emotion of love with precise detail. According to
“Webster’s New World Dictionary,” love is defined as “a strong
affection or liking for someone.” Throu ghout the play Shakespeare
examines three different types of love: true love, self love and
friendship.
“Twelfth Night” consists of many love triangles, however
many of the characters who are tangled up in the web of love are
blind to see that their emoti ons and feelings toward other
characters are untrue. They are being deceived by themselves
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72play where the emotion of love is true, and the two people involved
feel very strongly toward one a nother. Viola’s love for Orsino is a
great example of true love. Although she is pretending to be a man
and is virtually unknown in Illyria, she hopes to win the Duke’s
heart. In act 1, scene 4, Viola let’s out her true feelings for Cesario,
“yet a barful strife! Whoe’er I woo, myself would be his wife (1).”
That statement becomes true when Viola reveals her true identity.
Viola and Orsino had a very good friendship, and making the switch
to husband and wife was easy. Viola was caught up in another true
love scenario, only this time she was on the receiving end, and
things didn’t work out so smoothly. During her attempts to court
Olivia for Orsino, Olivia grew to love Cesario. Viola was now caught
in a terrible situation and there was only one way out, but t hat
would jeopardize her chances with Orsino. It’s amazing that Olivia
could fall for a woman dressed as a man, but because Viola knew
what women like to hear, her words won Olivia’s heart. The next
case of true love is on a less intimate and romantic scal e, and more
family oriented. Viola and Sebastian’s love for one another is a
bond felt by all siblings. Through their times of sorrow and
mourning for each of their apparent deaths they still loved each
other. They believed deep down that maybe some way or by some
miracle that each of them was still alive and well.
Many people, even in today’s society, love themselves more
than anything else. “Twelfth Night” addresses the issue of self love
and how it affects peoples’ lives. Malvolio is the easiest to iden tify
with the problem of self love. He sees himself as a handsome and
noble man. Malvolio believes many women would love to be with
him. He likes to see things one way only, and he deceives himself
just to suit his outlook on the situation. For example, in the play he
twists Olivia’s words around to make it sound like she admires his
yellow cross -gartered stockings, when she really despises them.
Both Sir Toby and Olivia show signs of self love but it is not as big
an issue. Sir Toby only cares about himsel f and no one else, not
even his friends. He ignores Maria’s warnings about drinking into
the night, and he continues to push Sir Andrew to court Olivia.
Although he believes Sir Andrew doesn’t have a chance. Olivia
cares about the people around her, but sh e also believes that no
man is worthy of her beauty. She thinks she is “all that,” and that no
one can match her.
Friendship is the third type of love expressed in “Twelfth
Night.” The biggest and closest friendship would have to be
between Orsino and Ces ario. They barely knew each other at first,
and before long Orsino was telling Cesario his inner love for Olivia.
He even had Cesario running his love messages to Olivia. The
second friendship between Viola and the Sea Captain was not
mentioned a lot, but they had a very deep bond between one
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73promised to keep Viola’s idea about pretending to be a man a
secret. If he had opened his mouth the entire play would have
changed. The third friendship , and definitely the strangest, is
between Sir Toby and Sir Andrew Aguecheek. They are close
friends but sometimes Sir Toby doesn’t show it. He sets Sir Andrew
up, and likes to get him into trouble. An example is persuading Sir
Andrew to challenge Cesario to a dual, even though he is not a
great swordsman and is unaware of Cesario’s ability. On the other
hand, Sir Andrew appreciates Sir Toby’s company because he
always lifts his spirits and makes him feel like a true knight.
Love plays a major role in “Twe lfth Night,” and Shakespeare
addresses true love, self love and friendship in a very compelling
and interesting way. Love is great to read about because everyone
deserves a little love. “Twelfth Night” is the true definition of love,
and Shakespeare does a great job of explaining a somewhat
difficult topic.
Identity
Most of the characters in Twelfth Night are in a state of
identity confusion. Thematically, Shakespeare sets up the plays to
actions to reinforce that identity will always be fragmentary and
incomplete until one is able to love, regardless of whether one is
loved in return.
One level of identity confusion in Twelfth Night is gender
identity. Viola embodies this confusion when she assumes the
identity of a boy, Cesario. Of course, in Shakespeare 's time, all
female roles were played by boys, so in this case a boy actor plays
a woman character (Viola) who dissembles herself as a boy
(Cesario). In a patriarchal culture, sexual difference is held to be an
immutable law; traditional gender role behavi or was based on a
natural biological fact rather than social convention.
The indeterminacy of Viola/Cesario's sexual identity would
show that maleness and femaleness were just aspects of a role,
qualities that are learned, not immutable physical traits. W hen
Cesario and Sir Andrew face each other in a duel, it is revealed that
both are acting the role of being a man. The biological fact of Sir
Andrew's maleness is obsolete. Both characters are pretending.
Melancholy
During the Renaissance, melancholy was believed to be a
sickness rather like modern depression, resulting from an
imbalance in the fluids making up the human body. Melancholy was
thought to arise from love: primarily narcissistic self -love or
unrequited ro mantic love. Several characters in Twelfth Night suffer
from some version of love -melancholy. Orsino exhibits many
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74in music and poetry). Dressed up as Cesario, Viola describes
herself as dying of melancholy, because she is unable to act on her
love for Orsino. Olivia also describes Malvolio as melancholy and
blames it on his narcissism.
Through its emphasis on melancholy, Twelfth Night reveals
the painfulness of love. At the same time, j ust as the play satirizes
the way in which its more excessive characters act in proclaiming
their love, it also satirizes some instances of melancholy and
mourning that are exaggerated or insincere. For instance, while
Viola seems to experience profound pa in at her inability to be with
Orsino, Orsino is cured of the intense lovesickness he experienced
for Olivia as soon as he learns that Viola is available.
Madness
The theme of madness in Twelfth Night often overlaps the
themes of desire and love. Orsino t alks about the faculty of love
producing multiple changing images of the beloved, similar to
hallucinations. Olivia remarks at certain points that desire for
Cesario is making her mad. These examples of madness are
mostly metaphorical: madness becomes a wa y for characters to
express the intensity of their romantic feelings.
But the play also has multiple characters that seem to go
literally mad. As part of the prank that Maria, Sir Toby, and Fabian
play on Malvolio, they convince everyone that he is crazy. The
confusion that results from characters' mixing up Viola/Cesario and
Sebastian, after Sebastian's arrival in Illyria, also leads many of
them to think that they have lost their minds. The general comedy
and chaos that creates (and results from) this co nfusion also
references the ritualized chaos of the Twelfth Night holiday in
Renaissance England.
Theme of Festivity
Twelfth Night, the last day of Christmas feasting, the last
night of holiday, is the day before normal life resumes. It is the time
to put on masks and disrupt the normal order of life. Carnival,
according to the Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin, “celebrated
temporary liberation from prevailing truth and from established
order; it marked the suspension of all hierarchical rank… the feast
of be coming, change and renewal.” The play Twelfth Night itself is
likewise, a suspension in time, but a conscious one, making the
spectator aware of the interplay between festivity on one hand and
real life on the other. This is because, while the plot is both
preposterous and entertaining, its implications are far more serious.
Historically, the twelfth night refers to the festivities of the sixth day
of January -a festival of the “ Epiphany or the manifestation of
Christ to the gentiles”. Possibly, the play w as specially composed
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75of Christmas of 1601 -02. However this apparently simple
explanation of the title is challenged by the sub -title (Or What You
Will). All the comic elements being as i tw h e r e ,t h r o w no u t
simultaneously and held in a sort of equipoise so that, the audience
is left to fix the preponderance according to their will. Thus every
single spectator may, within certain limits and conditions take the
work in whatever sense he will s. This is because, where no special
prominence is given to any one aspect of a play, there is a wider
scope for individual preference and “greater freedom” as Hudson
comments “…for each to select for virtual prominence such parts as
will best knit in with what is uppermost in his thoughts.”
Quite strikingly the phrase “Twelfth Night” is first uttered in a
conversation between Toby and Andrew -the two most important
figures of the sub -plot. While Toby plots for deliberately deceiving
Malvolio, Andrew decei ves himself unknowingly. Thus the title is
best suited to the temperament of revelry of two drunk men. These
characters hold up action, wasting and ignoring the demands of
time. But they do conspire together to produce their own action,
showing even a kind of cruelty. Thus, while the disguises and tricks
go on, there is an air of menace. “Carnival” observes Kate Flint, “…
can be cruel; can tread on the edge of danger”. This cruelty, as the
play shows, can be present unrecognized in the normal life and
attitudes as well as in drama which uses exaggeration to make this
more prominent.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TITLE
The key to the meaning of Twelfth Night is in the title.
Twelfth Night is the only one of Shakespeare’s plays to have an
alternative title: the play is actually called ‘Twelfth Night, or What
You Will’. Critics are divided over what the two titles mean, but
'Twelfth Night' is usually considered to be a reference to Epiphany,
or the twelfth night of the Christmas celebration (January 6), as in
the popular song “Twelve Days of Christmas”. It marks the Feast of
the Epiphany, a culmination of the Christmas period, a holiday in
Western Christian theology that celebrates the day that the magi
(a.k.a. the three wise men) presented gifts to the newborn Jesus. It
represents the manifestation of Light, or Truth, to those who have
enough understanding to perceive it. This revelation of Light, or
Truth, is the subject of the play, with Viola eventually revealing her
true identity as a woman.
Critics argue about wheth er or not the play was written
specifically for the Twelfth Night. Leslie Hotson argues that Twelfth
Night was performed for Queen Elizabeth and her guest, Count
Don Virginio Orsino, on January 6, 1601 (Orsino, of course, is
Viola's love interest in the pl ay). Some argue that the play was
written later, but even those who refute Hotson's argument
acknowledge that the world of the play celebrates the spirit ofmunotes.in

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76Twelfth Night festivities. Twelfth Night, in Shakespeare’s day, was a
holiday celebrated by a festi val in which everything was turned
upside down. Elizabethan communities often appointed young boys
as "Lords of Misrule"; it was a chance to play king for a day -much
like the upside -down, chaotic world of Illyria. This rebellious spirit is
reflected in f igures like Sir Toby Belch and Sir Andrew Aguecheek,
alongside Feste's singing and comedy.
Some theorize that the second part of the title was an
afterthought: when someone asked the playwright "the name of the
play, Shakespeare replied, "Urm, Twelfth Nig ht, or what you will"
(as in, "I don't know –whatever"). The second title seems to invite
the audience to make "what [we] will" of the play –what it means,
and why it matters (if it matters at all) -it is entirely subjective.
6.4 QUESTIONS
1.Twelfth Night is based on a series of mistaken identities and
disguises of one sort or another. Identify and explain how each
of them functions in the plot development
2.Describe the nature and type of love to which Duke Orsino is an
easy prey’
3.Discuss the role of mistaken identity in Twelfth Night. Who is
mistaken for whom, and what do these mix -ups signify?
4.What role does Malvolio serve in the play? Does his fate seem
unjust? Is it out of place in a romantic comedy? Elucidiate
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77Unit -7
AC R I T I C A LS T U D YO F ROBERT BOLT’S
A MAN FOR ALL SEASONS –PART 1
Unit Structure :
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Author
7.3 Act I
7.4 Act II
7.5 Let’s Sum Up
7.0 OBJECTIVE
The objective of the Unit is to make the learners understand
the importance of the play through the various scenes that offer
clear understanding of the proceedings. The historical moment of
the play which covers nearly six years, from Thomas More’s
appoin tment as Lord Chancellor in 729 to his death in 735, gives an
idea about England during those years.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The play revolves around the English King who came to
power in 709, after the death of his older brother and then wanted
to marry his brother’s widow, Catherine, which was against
accepted Biblical norms. So he sent a special request to the Pope
asking for his marriage to be legitimized to which the Pope ag reed
and the yw e r em a r r i e d .B u t ,u n f o r t u n a t e l y , Catherine failed to give
birth to a male heir and in the meantime Henry had an affair with
Anne Boleyn and for the sake of having a boy child they decided to
marry. But the Church would not allow him to divorce Catherine and
so Henry decided to separate England from the Catholic Church
and install himself as the head of the Church, instead of the Pope.
Henry passed the Act of Supremacy to which most of the
Parliament and nobility signed except Thomas More. The play now
sets the events which deal with More’s refusal to acknowledge the
new Church of England and his reward of life as punishment for not
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787.2 THE AUTHOR
Robert Oxton Bolt (1924 -1995), the high prolific, versatile
and su ccessful modern British author is best known for his play
about Sir Thomas More, A Man for All Seasons , and his screen
plays for film epics such as Lawrence of Arabia ,Doctor Zhivago
and The Mission .T h et w o -time Oscar winning screenwriter is
widely known for his dramatic works that placed his protagonists in
tension with the predominant society, he contributed a lot in the
reiteration of his themes and thus emerging his existential scripts.
InLawrence of Arabia he had the potentiality of turning T.E.
Lawr ence’s Seven Pillars of Wisdom into a convincing screenplay
by turning the entire book on its head and making it a search for the
identity of its author. Bolt was later arrested and imprisoned when
he didn’t follow the law and protested against nuclear pro pagation.
He even refused to sign the declaration stating that he would no
longer engage himself in such activities and so he was sentenced
to one -monthprison. It was Sam Spiegel, the producer of the
Lawrence film, who persuaded Bolt to sign the declaratio na f t e rh e
hadserved two weeks in prison for which Bolt regretted later and
never spoke to Spiegel again.
Bolt suffered a severe stroke in 1979 which resulted in loss
of speech and partial paralysis, but he continued with his
contribution and The Bounty was his first project after the stroke.
The Mission was Bolt’s final film project which once again
epitomized his thematic concern, and this time it was the 18th
century Jesuits in South America. Political Animal , which was later
made into the television movie Without Warning: The James Brady
Story (1991), was his final produced script. The story revolves
around the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan and the
strugglesof his press secretary, James Brady, who was recovering
from a near fatal gunshot in jury he had received in the procedure.
Though reluctant initially to make the film, he changed his mind
after meeting Brady as he felt connected to Brady’s struggles with
the cerebral injury; thus, a lot of his own experiences of recovering
from his stroke have paved their way into the script.
7.3 ACT I
SCENE I
The play opens with a monologue of the Common man who
is seen reluctant and lamenting in opening a play which relates to
royalty and the noble class for he feels that he is unsuitable for the
mission but ,finally he decides to present his own version. The
common man is a character who has all the qualities and
characteristics of any other common man and here he puts on the
costume of Matthew, the servant of Thomas More. Emphasizingmunotes.in

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79and representing humanity at large by the Common Man, More
tries to bring ou t the existentialist idea that human beings are
defined above all by their inner selves. This unique perspective of
existence was initially popularized by thinkers like Albert Camus
and Jean -Paul Sartre. The Common Man tries to show the world
how everyone betrays oneself by doing other jobs but not being
true to the inner self. Declaring that the 16thcentury is ‘the century
of the common man’, he treats himself well with some wine that he
pours for his master and then introduces Sir Thomas More as he
enter s. Thomas More is followed into the room by Richard Rich and
both of them keep arguing over man’s probability of being bribed.
Though he dismisses Rich’s belief that money, status or women
can bribe anyone, he is thoughtful when Rich implies that a mancan
be bought with suffering. However it turns out that Rich wanted to
mean that men who wish to avoid suffering are in fact attracted to
the possibility of escape. More immediately recognizes that this is
the theory of Machiavelli and he asks Rich who has rec ommended
him to read Machiavelli books to which Rich admits that it is Master
Cromwell. Rich also reveals that Cromwell had offered him a job or
some kind of a favor to which he had regretted his unemployment
and his normally low social stature.More is con cerned about Rich
and tells the duke about how much More requires a job, although
playfully he even adds on that he doesn’t ‘recommend’ Rich. When
More points out that there is a comfortable teacher’s job available
with the dean of St. Paul’s School, it is seen that Rich shows hardly
any interest and he declares it as a dead -end opportunity. More
warns Rich against administrative offices which are usually filled
with temptations and also shows him an Italian silver cup that a
petitioner has used with the in tention of bribing him.When the cup
was presented to him he had not realized that it was a bribe, but
now that he understands he wants to get rid of it. Rich says that he
can sell it off to buy some decent clothing.
The Duke of Norfolk along with Alice, More’s wife, enters
arguing over whether it is possible for a falcon to stoop from the
cloud of around 500 feet high to kill a heron. In the meantime
More’s daughter, Margaret, also steps in and Rich takes the
opportun ity to flatter Norfolk. More playfully reveals to everyone
about Rich’s reading Machiavelli under the guidance of Cromwell.
Norfolk discloses the promotion of Cromwell to the position of
cardinal’s secretary and the news surprises everyone. It is difficult
for them to believe that such a lowborn and usually disliked person
can get such a wonderful job. More now points out how valuable
Rich’s relationship with Cromwell has become and he need not
come to More anymore to seek help in finding a job, to which Ri ch
pleads that he would rather work for More than go to Cromwell.
They are interrupted by a letter from the Cardinal who wants
to see More immediately and as More prepares to leave he takes
care of seeing his family off to bed after prayers and arranging formunotes.in

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80Norfolk to take Rich home.At the end of the scene Rich is seen
snatching the silver cup that was left behind on the table and when
Matthew tries to stop him he says it’s a gift. Rich’s accepting the
cup, which represents corruption and declining the of fer of the
teaching profession which epitomizes social responsibility, proves
the immorality of Rich. In fact, when Matthew predicts that Rich has
no proper future and that More is too generous on him foretells the
ruin of Rich.
SCENE II
More reaches Card inal Wolsey’s office and he is given a
message to be delivered to the Pope. Knowing very well that More
might oppose to the dispatch, the Cardinal asks him to go through
the message to which More very diplomatically comments on the
style and not the conten t. The Cardinal is more interested in the
content to which More replies that h ismessage is addressed to
Cardinal Campeggio and not to the English ambassador to Rome;
to which Wolsey replies that he has been appointed in the office of
the ambassador and he can use his position to write to the cardinal
directly. When More comments that Wolsey’s plot is deceitful,
Wolsey laments that he calls More’s ‘plodding’ moral.
Wolsey states that King Henry has decided to divorce his
current wife, Catherine of Aragon, in favor of his recent mistress
Anne Boleyn with whom, Henry feels, he will be more successful in
having a male successor. It is Wolsey who has now to secure the
authorization of the Pope for Henry’s divorce and remarriageand so
he wants the assurance of M ore that he will not oppose the action.
More is very clear that nothing should happen without the willing
approval of the Pope. Wolsey tries to convince More how the
implications of no divorce might lead to the problem of never having
an heir to the throne which can lead to wars for succession.
Although More is shaken by this premonition, he still has faith that
Catherine will bear their successor to which Wolsey is skeptical.
More wonders how will the previous decision of Pope’s to allow
Henry and Catherin e, the widow of Henry’s brother, to marry, be
nullified. He is bewildered thinking what the receptivity and
possibility of disrespecting Pope’s first special consideration will be.
Wolsey wonders at More’s enthusiasm over preserving his own
private princip les above the interests of the country but More
beholds the feeling that by listening to his own conscience he can
avoid leading their country into chaos. It is only when, anticipating
his own death, Wolsey suggests that his position as Lord
Chancellor wil l be taken over by Cromwell that More is shocked.
When More suggests that he should take care rather than the
appointment of Cromwell ,to which Wolsey says that More is not at
all practical and he deserves only to be a cleric.munotes.in

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81SCENE III
On his way home to Chelsea ,when More is arguing with the
boatman over the fare, Cromwell arrives to announce that he is on
his way to meet the Cardinal and Cromwell is very sure that even
More has met the Cardinal to which More admits. After Cromwell
leaves and More is abo ut to depart, Signor Chapuys, the Spanish
ambassador, tries to get information from More regarding his
interaction with the Cardinal. He understands More’s agreement
with the Cardinal regarding King Henry’s divorce from Catherine
who is the aunt of King of Spain. Chapuys departs warning More of
the King’s taking personal offence against him if the divorce
happens.
SCENE IV
Back home More discovers the presence of Roper, the
boyfriend of his daughter Margaret, even in such a later hour. He is
very displeas ed when Margaret announces that Roper has asked
her hand for marriage and he blatantly refuses. Roper feels that
More’s objection is because of his social standing and tries to
convince him that he will attain a good position by becoming a
lawyer. But More ’s objection is because of Roper’s Lutheran faith
which he believes to be heterodox ,to which Roper reacts and says
that it is the Catholic Church that is unorthodox. Roper even goes
to the extent of bringing in the divorce case of Henry which he
believes that the Pope would accept the proposal. He goes to the
extent of calling Pope an Antichrist which angers More and he
reminds Roper that he too was a passionate Catholic just two years
back and he wishes that Roper, after completing his religious
ambiguity , should end up being a Catholic once again. After Roper
is sent home on Alice’s horse, More and Margaret discuss on
Roper’s family. In the meantime, Alice comes in and is critical of
Margaret and tells More that he should have beaten her for bringing
Rope r at such a wrong hour ,to which More doesn’t agree for he
feels that Margaret is too ‘full of education’. Although More avoids
answering Margaret’s question of meeting the Cardinal he fails to
avoid it to Alice when she asks about it in Margaret’s absence .H e
tries to divert her attention by referring to Roper’s proposal of
marriage ,but finally her insistence makes him to admit that Wolsey
has asked him to read over a dispatch to Rome. After Margaret’s
entry, again they talk about the replacement of Wolse ya sL o r d
Chancellor to which More predicts that there will be no replacement
till Wolsey is alive.
SCENE V
The scene starts with the revelation of a red robe and the
Cardinal’s hat lying on the floor and the Common Man enters to
give away the news of th e Cardinal’s death. Though it is officially
ascribed as pulmonary pneumonia, it is understood that it
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82management of the divorce. Wolsey died on his way to jail for his
crime of treachery. The Common Man also announces that More is
appointed as the successor –
‘England’s next Lord Chancellor was Sir Thomas More, a
scholar and, by popular repute, a saint. His scholarship is
supported by his writings; saintliness is a quality less easy to
establish. Bu t from his willful indifference to realities which were
obvious to quite ordinary contemporaries, it seems all too probable
that he had it.’ [AM a nf o rA l lS e a s o n s ,p .2 0H e i n e m a n n
Educational Books Ltd. London]
SCENE VI
Cromwell and Rich, who is now Norfolk’s secretary and
librarian, run into each other and Cromwell wants to know from him
why is he not getting a better position despite his great friend
Thomas More holding such an important post. Rich’s response, that
they actually are not very close friends, makes Cromwell seek a
chance of asking him for some exchange of services. Suspicious
Rich and Chapuys, who enters then, want to know what work
exactly does Cromwell do for the king, to which he replies that he
does wha tever the king ‘wants done’. He gives an example of how
he recently arranged Henry’s trip down the Thames on the maiden
voyage of a new battleship, the Great Harry. It is revealed by
Cromwell that the ship is set sail to More’s house to discuss the
king’s divorce. When Chapuys protests that More has already
expressed his opinion, Cromwell insists that the king hopes to
change his mind.
Matthew, the steward of More appears and the three men
eagerly want to know from him about More’s opinions regarding the
divorce. The Common Man does not reveal to More about the
people plotting against himand at the same time he keeps duping
More’s opponents.
SCENE VII
Back at More’s home when Chelsea, Alice, Margaret and
Norfolk are preparing for the King Henry’s visit, Mo re is not to be
seen anywhere and everyone questions Matthew about him, to
which Matthew says that he is not aware of. Norfolk is of the
opinion that More is disrespecting the King and when More finally
enters in his prayer costumes and not his office atti re, Norfolk’s
complain becomes more vigorous. But More reverts by saying that
no office is dishonoured by his service to God.
The King arrives and he insists on being received in a very
casual manner –he talks in Latin to Margaret, dances with her,
talks joyously with Norfolk and attempts to wrestle with him, asks
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83informs him that it was Wolsey who had suggested More’s name as
his successor. When Henry appreciates Wolsey’s qualities Henry
interferes saying that he was over ambitious and so he had to be
broken. Henry then talks about the divorce to which More admits
that he cannot agree with it, making the king angry and sad at the
same time.When More reminds the king that he had promised not
tobother him with the divorce, the king says that because it’s a
matter of grave importance he has no other option but to discuss.
He feels that he has already committed a grave sin by marrying
Catherine, his brother’s widow, as the book of Leviticus also
condemns the act. He is sure that God is punishing him by denying
him an heir because of his sinful action. Although everyone has
consented to his second marriage, Henry admits that he needs the
backing of More for he considers him for his honest reputation but
More sticks to his decision. The king asks More of his silence if not
his consent and leaves his house in great displeasure.
When Alice rebukes More of making the king angry More
argues that his opinion hardly matters to the king; he will do
whatever he has decided. In the meantime Roper arrives admitting
that his views on Church reforms have changed and he is still
concerned about Catholicism but considers that the Catholic
Church should be sacred. He asks More whether he has been
offered a seat in th e next Parliament and becomes passionate even
to accuse More of corruption, saying that to maintain his position
More has learnt how to flatter the court and the king.
Rich arrives behaving defensively, suspicious that Roper
might have known his treachero us action against More and
revealed it to him. He pours out to More about Cromwell and
Chapuyschecking out on him and also Matthew’s duplicity. The
disclosures don’t surprise More but he turns down Rich when he
breaks down and asks for employment again. Wh en others are of
the opinion that Rich should be arrested, More reminds them that
he has done nothing illegal.
More and Roper keep arguing about man’s and God’s laws
in human society and Roper accuses More of believing only in law
and not in God. More is of the opinion man’s law offers a safe
haven whereas God is very personal and anonymous. More denies
Roper his daughter’s hand in marriage, exits in haste and reenters
to apologize for criticizing Roper ruthlessly and explains to his wife
and daughter of being safe in the case of the divorce of the king for
he has not broken any law neither disobeyed the king.
SCENE VIII
The Common Man enters as a publican or an innkeeper to a
pub named Loyal Subject and says that because he is not a deep
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84principles. Cromwell comes and he suspects the innkeeper of being
hypocritical and accuses him of being too diplomatic. He then calls
for Rich and offers him the position of collector of revenues for York
in exchange of information from him. He also makes a joke of the
king’s expenses and forces Rich to admit bought.
Cromwell is very sure that Henry’s divorce will definitely
happen and he would try to make it as convenient as possible
disregard of More’s approval. He is very certain that More has
either to bend or get out of the way. Rich discloses to Cromwell
about More’s receiving a bribe in the form of a silver cup which was
passed on to him and he had sold it in a shop and he is ready to
take Cromwell there.Though Rich feels guilty of betraying More, he
doesn’t find it as difficult as he had expected. Cromwell predicts
that men like More are fit for heaven and earth and Rich wonders
what will Cromwell plan with the information he has let out.
7.4 ACT II
SCENE I
The Common man announces the passing of two years and
the establishment of the Church of England which was created by
the act of the Parliament and not through bloodshed. Only a few
people who had opposed it were considered rebels and had put
themselves at risk as torture was the order of the day.
SCENE II
More and Roper, now the husband of Margaret, argue and
Roper is critical about the position of More as the Lord Chancellor.
More promises to resign if the Bishops side with the king to which
Roper remind s him that it is the king who is the head of the English
Church. More finds Roper’sviews inappropriate and he advices him
to take care of his wife and child and other responsibilities.
Chapuys comes in with the understanding that More is likely
to resign and he is appreciative of it because he feels it’s a ‘signal’
but More considers it to be a moral obligation. Even Alice and
Norfolk considers his recognition as an act of cowardice. More
replies that he is afraid but Norfolk is of the opinion that though the
king is disappointed he will neither pursue nor punish More. When
the whole family is against More’s decision, he himself feels that it
is a ‘noble decision’. More asks Alice to send off all the servants as
they would no longer be able to afford their services but he asks
Matthew if he can carry on for less money to which Matthew
doesn’t approve.
SCENE III
Cromwell is of the opinion that everyone considers More’s
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85out that it is the ins truction of the king to seek More’s consent. He
even brings Rich and the woman who had given the silver cup to
More to prove More guilty of taking bribe. Norfolk tries to assert that
the cup was immediately given off to Rich as soon as More had
realized th at it was a bribe. Cromwell says that the king wishes that
Norfolk should join the campaign as his participation, because he is
More’s friend, will make Cromwell’s campaign look less nasty
examination and more a reasonable investigation of facts.
SCENE IV
Situations have declined in More’s house and as Chapuys
meets More he promises that his fortunes are sure to change with
the alliance with Spain. He hands More a letter from the King of
Spain but More refuses to break the seal even for it might lead to
some kind of obligation.While going Chapuys feels that the King will
admire more for having refused the letter. The family is upset on
their poverty, More’s refusal to explain his intentions and his
sudden preoccupation with the changing scenario. In the mea ntime
Roper arrives to announce that someone has come to take More to
Hampton Court to answer some charges which alarms Alice but
More remains indifferent.
SCENE V
When More wants to know the charges against him,
Cromwell says that there are no charges bu t only questions and
Rich will be recording everything. He also informs More that the
king is not pleased with him and would reward him handsomely if
he changes his opinion to which More refuses. Cromwell even tries
to scare More by bringing up the subject of the Holy Maid of Kent, a
lady who was executed for sermonizing against the king. He
blames More for having written A Defense of the Seven
Sacraments, a work attributed to King Henry, to which More tries to
defend himself. It is only when Cromwell produ ces a letter from the
king, accusing More as a villain and a traitor, that More becomes
disturbed. Cromwell informs Rich that the king had said that More
will die if he does not consent because the king cannot tolerate the
disapproval of a man of conscienc e like More.
SCENE VI
When More is trying to hail a boat and no one responds to
his call, he is met by Norfolk who informs him about Cromwell’s
insulting campaign against More and his own role in it. He also
insists More to change his mind but More defies and asks Norfolk
to forget their friendship and do his duty. More thinks highly about
the friendship but he feels that he must remain loyal to his own self
first. Playfully More even picks a fight with Norfolk accusing him of
neglecting his conscience by surrendering himself to the unethical
actions of the state. He criticizes Norfolk so much that he finally
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86announce the implementation of a new act in the Parliament that
calls for the enactment of an oath regarding the king’s marriage.
SCENE VII
The Common Man, now playing the role of a jailer,
introduces More to his new home in the Tower of London. A letter
comes to the jailer predicting the convictions of Cromwell, Norfolk
and Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury, for high treason and
the execu tions of Cromwell and Cranmer; on the contrary Rich
fares well living a long life finally succumbing on bed. No such thing
happens in the play though and the three, Cromwell, Norfolk and
Cranmer, arrive to interrogate More. They present More with the
Act o f Succession, the document that invalidates the first marriage
of the king and the Pope’s right to authorize it and the verdict also
confirms the children of Queen Anne as the rightful heirs to the
throne.
More refuses to comment for the first half of the document
but agrees to the second and he believes that till he maintains this
silence for refusing to swear the oath no one can convict him of
treachery or issue a death -penalty offence. More desires to have
some more books and see his family but Cromwell refuses. In
More’s absence the jailer is promised money by Cromwell in
exchange of any kind of information from More. Cromwell informs
Rich about the king’s becoming impatient to More’s silence and
Rich inquires whether Cromwell is trying to acquire the t hen vacant
post of the attorney general of Wales, Cromwell is thoughtful. He
admits that More’s silence is troubling the king’s conscience but
More’s execution will trouble his own.
SCENE VIII
The family of More comes to pay him a visit and More very
clearly understands that they were allowed to see him only because
they had promised to convince him to concede. Alice and Margaret
are unhappy that More had selected prison over home and they try
their utmost to persuade him but More remains unmoved. He rathe r
asks Alice and Margaret to leave the country for he knows he will
not be allowed to see them again. He wants Alice to know why he
has not yielded to the persuasion of the king because her not
understanding will be the worstof tortures for him. When Alic es a y s
that she doesn’t understand and she might even begrudge him
after he is gone, More breaks down. Touched by More’s agony,
Alice hugs him saying that he is the best man she has ever known.
SCENE IX
The stage is set by the Common Man as the courtroom and
it is here that Norfolk offers More one last opportunity to take the
oath but More refuses. The charges read by Cromwell claim that
More conspired to undermine Henry’s authority as the suprememunotes.in

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87head of the Church of England and he is also accused of gr eat
treachery. Shocked More tries to convince that silence does not
suggest denial but Cromwell tries to prove that silence does not
signify consent as well and accuses More of self -obsession and
individual opinions.
When Rich is called to the stand by C romwell he affirms that
he had heard More say that the Parliament has no power to declare
Henry as the head of the Church of England. More is shocked at
Rich’s falsehood and he tries to convince that he has never
disregarded Henry. Even the other eye -witne sses are conspired
against More and it is only when More sees the chain of the
attorney general for Wales that Rich is wearing that he rebukes
Rich of having sold off his soul.
The jury finds More guilty but before Norfolk convicts More to
death condemns the Act of Supremacy and points out that both
Magna Carta and the Coronation Oath guarantee the authority of
the Catholic Church and also his loyalty towards King Henry. He
informs the court that he never has denied the Act of Supremacy,
he has only decli ned to acknowledge the marriage.
SCENE X
It is the scene of More’s execution. A crowd gathers at the
Tower of London. The Common Man in black mask is the
executioner. As More approaches the block, he refuses Norfolk’s
offer of wine and Cranmer’s offer of performing last rites. Margaret
is hysterical but More comforts her. He then tells the executioner
not to feel bad for having killed him and tells Cranmer that he is
sure to reach God. And then the blackout.
7.5 LET’S SUM UP
In his Preface, Robert Bolt says that he was not interested in
More as a religious martyr but appreciated More as a hero of
individual conscience. He portrays More as the ideal humanist who
can think for oneself. He brings out the integrity of Thomas More
which demands admiration from various angles. A wonderful drama
based on devotion and determination, possibility and priority,
submission and sacrifice, it reaches out to touch the heart of every
reader.
REFERENCES
1.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
2.www.sparknotes.com › SparkNotes › Poetry Study Guides
3.https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/k/keats -poems
4.www.novelguide.com/a -man-for-all-seasons
munotes.in

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88Unit -8
A CRITICAL STUDY OF ROBERT BOLT’S
A MAN FOR ALL SEASONS –PART 2
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Plot
8.2 Characters
8.3 Themes
8.4 Metaphors and Symbols
8.5 Structure and Language
8.6 Check Your Progress/ Questions
8.0 OBJECTIVES
To explain the play A Man For All Seasons ,i t sP l o t ,
Characterization, Themes, Metaphors and Symbols, Structure and
Language.
8.1 PLOT
More is a close and trusted friend of King Henry VIII. He
morally objects to the divorce, which, at the time, is not leg al. The
country is controlled by the Roman Catholic Church, which is
strongly against divorce. Henry, however, is obsessed with creating
an heir. Catherine was only allowed to marry Henry after it was
discovered that her first husband, Henry’s late brother ,h a dn o t
consummated the marriage. More expresses his feelings to the
current Chancellor, Cardinal Wolsey, who says that More is simply
being impractical.
More meets the Spanish Ambassador to England, Signor
Chapuys. Catherine, the aunt of the King of Spain, has his loyalty
far more than Henry does. Chapuys talks with More and discovers
More’s feelings about the divorce. He stresses the religious
significance that marriage holds within the Catholic faith, and
therefore considers More an ally. Mo re is thoughtful, which
Chapuys interprets as signifying More’s dedication to the Catholic
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89More comes home to find his daughter, Margaret, and her
boyfriend, Roper. Roper is Lutheran, meaning Protestant. He asks
for Margaret’s hand, and More, furio us about having a Protestant in
the family. Meanwhile, Henry sends Wolsey into disgrace after he
fails to convince the Pope to support the divorce. Wolsey dies
suddenly after this, and More is chosen as his successor.
More helps Richard Rich find a job an d gives him a silver
cup as a gift not realizing the cup had been given to him as a bribe.
Thomas Cromwell, a close confidant of Henry, presses Rich for
information about More, promising Rich a high -powered court
position. Chapuys enters with More’s servan t, Matthew. Cromwell,
Rich, and Chapuys try to bribe information out of Matthew, who is
purposely vague. They pay him anyway.
Henry goes to London in search of More when he cannot be
found. More arrives at his home just before Henry gets there, and
the tw o men talk. More says Henry promised not to ask him his
opinion on the divorce, which angers Henry. He says he will not ask
him anymore, but More must stay quiet about his opinions publicly.
Henry leaves, and More’s wife, Alice, begs her husband to change
his mind. She tells him to do whatever Henry wants. Rich arrives to
warn More about Cromwell and Chapuys’ intention to blackmail
him. Rich uses this to blackmail More himself, asking for a better
job, but More refuses. Embarrassed, Rich returns to Cromwell and
tells him about the silver cup. For this, Cromwell gives Rich a better
job.
The Act of Supremacy is passed, meaning England will be
Protestant and follow the Church of England. King Henry will act as
the head of the church, but the act is not fully r ealised: it still needs
bishops of England to pass it. More announces that if the bishops
pass the act, he will resign his new position and will not explain
himself to anyone but the king. Again, his family begs him not to
anger the king further, but he re fuses. The King of Spain sends him
a letter, commending him for his decision.
Henry tells Cromwell he plans to persecute More, but he
needs more evidence. Cromwell meets with the Duke of Norfolk
and tells him about the silver cup. Norfolk pokes holes in h is
evidence, telling Cromwell that More gave the cup away once he
realised it was a bribe. Cromwell remains determined to find more
evidence against More.
Cromwell calls More to his office to cite charges against him.
He lists sympathizing with an enemy and taking credit for a book
Henry wrote. Then he reads a letter written by Henry, in which he
calls More a villain. These words hurt More much more than the
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90More meets with Norfolk, warning that their friendship is a
liability; Norfolk might be seen as a conspirator against the king.
Shortly after, More is imprisoned. Another act is signed, stating all
subjects must swear an oath of allegiance to Hen ry and his new
capacity as the head of the Church of England. All must support
Henry’s divorce of Catherine. More refuses again.
Many try to change More’s mind, including Alice. She finally
understands why he did what he did, and they rekindle their love. At
the trial, Rich gives false testimony about More denying Henry as
the true ruler of the church. More gives a speech about the evils of
a government that would condemn a man for being quiet about his
opinions. He is then beheaded.
8.2 CHARACTERIZATION
Sir Thomas More
Sir Thomas More is the play’s protagonist. A member of the
King’s Council and later Lord Chancellor, he is a learned and
incorruptible jurist, a friend and loyal subject to the King and a
devout Catholic (although Bolt plays down the relig ious dimension
of More’s character). More cannot in conscience agree to Henry’s
divorce and his action in making himself head of the Church of
England because it is a violation of the Church’s, that is, God’s law,
and for More, divine, or natural law is su perior to man’s law. More is
committed to the service of his King but to violate divine law is to
risk the salvation of his soul. He has no desire to be a martyr but
puts his trust in English law, under which silence is construed as
consent, to save him fr om punishment for his refusal to swear the
King’s oath. Convicted on false evidence and sentenced to
execution, More is finally forced to choose between his God and his
King. He rejects the authority of the King’s law to execute him,
appealing to the highe rl a wo fG o d .M o r e ’ sr e p u t a t i o na sa
statesman and scholar extends throughout Europe, and he counts
men such as Erasmus among his friends. Because he is widely
known and respected he comes under pressure from many
quarters over the swearing of the King’s o ath, but he remains
constant to the end. More’s character has been shaped by his
knowledge and love of the law. He is calm and restrained in his
actions and his speech, but he is also witty, insightful and a shrewd
judge of character. Having attained the h ighest position in
government, he is not personally ambitious or greedy like men such
as Wolsey and Rich. Above all he is a man of integrity; his
conscience is his ‘self’ –his soul –and although he is sometimes
afraid, he never doubts that he is doing wh at is right. He disproves
the cynical proposition that ‘everyman has his price’, even though
he is forced to make many sacrifices, including the loss of his
family, in remaining true to himself. More is a hero almost too good
to be true but Bolt keeps us s ympathetic with his character bymunotes.in

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91exposing his weaknesses and vulnerabilities such as his fear of
death and his desperate need to have his family’s love and
understanding before he dies. The cynical comments of the
Common Man also serve to make him seem les saf i g u r eo fa w e .
The Common Man
Bolt explains in the preface that the character of the
Common Man is an adaptation of the German playwright, Bertolt
Brecht’s alienation technique which is intended to distance the
audience from the action on the stage. I n fact, the Common Man
also provides a link between the audience and the play by
commenting on and interpreting the action and providing some
historical data.
Bolt intended ‘common’ to be understood as ‘universal’ but
the Common Man is generally seen as vulgar and immoral,
embodying the worst in human nature. In order to establish the
‘universal’ character of the Common Man –and to show how
readily he is prepared to adapt in order to survive –Bolt presents
him in a number of roles. Despite the variety o f roles, however, he
develops as though he were a single character. While the Common
Man serves a number of masters he always looks out for himself
first. He is shrewd and opportunistic and through the course of the
play becomes increasingly involved in Mo re’s downfall. As
Matthew, More’s Steward, he is fickle in his loyalty, taking bribes
from both Chapuys and Cromwell in return for information –albeit
harmless –about his master. He leaves More’s employment rather
than take a pay cut and uses flattery to manipulate Rich, whom he
holds in contempt, to take him on. As the boatman he is the voice
of the average working man with his finger on the pulse of public
opinion. As publican of The Loyal Subject he is aware that
Cromwell and Rich are plotting to trap More but keeps silent,
appealing in advance to the audience to exonerate him and
feigning not to understand either their intentions or More himself.
Forced into close proximity with More, the Common Man, as jailer,
begins to feel guilt yfor the first time, but comforts himself with the
thought that it is better to be ‘a live rat than a dead lion’ .H ew o u l d
setMore free if he could but he has a job to do. With
uncharacteristic passion, More condemns the Common Man for his
lack of principles: ‘Oh, Sweet Jesus ! These plain, simple men!’
Compelled to act as foreman of the jury then executioner, he
cannot escape implication in More’s death. The Common Man’s
priorities represent those of mankind in general: self preservation
and a peaceful life.
Thomas Cromwell
Cromwell is identified early in the play as ‘the coming man’.
A farrier’s son, he is initially secretary to Cardinal Wolsey but after
Wolsey’s fall and More’s resignation is appointed to the position ofmunotes.in

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92Lord Chancellor. He is a man of great ambition, intell ect and energy
but he has no conscience. Cromwell does Henry’s dirty work:
‘When the King wants something done, I do it’. What Henry wants
is Sir Thomas More to agree to his divorce and Cromwell sets
himself to break More’s opposition, by corruption or for ce: ‘[The
King] wants either Sir Thomas More to bless his marriage or Sir
Thomas More destroyed. Either will do’. Cromwell is clever and
manipulative: he professes to be an admirer of More, pays More’s
manservant to spy on his master and bribes the weak Ri ch to tell
him about the silver cup More gave him and eventually to perjure
himself. In prison
Cromwell tries emotional blackmail, using More’s family to
try to break down his resistance. He is also prepared to use
physical force as his brutality in thru sting Rich’s hand into the
candle flame shows. He dismisses the idea of using the rack to
make More swear the oath because he knows the king would not
allow it, but taking away More’s books is another form of torture. As
More continues to hold out, Cromwel l’s intimidation becomes more
intense and he no longer tries to hide his anger and hatred which is
aggravated by More’s superior knowledge of the law. For More ‘the
law is not an instrument of any kind’ but in facilitating Rich’s perjury,
Cromwell uses the law as a ninstrument to bring about More’s
death. Cromwell, with his overbearing ambition, deceit, lack of
conscience and disregard for the law, is the antithesis of More. For
More, ‘ necessity’ means ,being true to his conscience. For
Cromwell, necessity means certain political goals, and More’s
integrity, or ‘innocence’, stands in the way of their achievement.
Cromwell’s character appears to have no redeeming feature but, in
his defence, he does believe himself to be acting in the nation’s
interest in pro curing England’s independence from Rome; and as
Lord Chancellor –a position which had been the undoing of both
Wolsey and More –he is answerable to a demanding and powerful
King.
The King
Henry appears in only one scene, but is a constant presence
throu ghout the play. Visiting More’s home, he reveals himself to be
a product of the new Renaissance learning, proficient in Latin and
Greek, an excellent dancer and a musician and composer. His
religious treatise has been recognised by the pope but Henry’s
relationship with Rome is now strained. There is a certain
superficiality in Henry’s manner and an immaturity demonstrated by
his need for flattery and his reluctance to face the consequences of
his actions. Henry understands More’s moral objection to the oat h
and claims to have great respect for his honesty and sincerity:
‘Thomas … I respect your sincer ity … it’s water in the desert… .’
However, Henry shows he is a hypocrite who places greater value
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93to himself. Henry believes his lack of a male heir is divine
punishment for marrying his brother’s widow and needs the divorce
to ease his conscience. Wolsey, More and Cromwell, in the post of
Lord Chancellor, are all charged with satisfying Henry’s dist urbed
conscience. The King’s personal and political need for More’s
approval becomes so strong that it makes his death inevitable:
‘While More’s alive the King’s conscience breaks into fresh stinking
flowers every time he gets from bed’. Henry gives power to certain
individuals, such as Wolsey and Cromwell, to do his will, but cuts
them down savagely when they fail him. His corruption and duplicity
call forth the same qualities in those who serve him, and while he
does not physically confront More again, he is responsible for his
persecution and death.
Alice More
Alice is More’s second wife. In her late forties, plain and
overdressed, she was born into the merchant class but is now very
conscious of her status as ‘a knight’s lady’ . While her husband is an
eminent scholar, Alice is illiterate and refuses his offer to teach her
to read. She does not approve of Margaret’s high level of education
and is perhaps jealous of the bond of learning the girl and her
father share. Alice consta ntly scolds More but is quick to defend
him against criticism by others: ‘Thomas has his own way of doing
things’. She is not afraid to speak her mind and almost every other
character feels the sharp edge of her tongue at some point in the
play. Alice reac ts to More’s resignation as Chancellor with anger
and bewilderment; interpreting his unwillingness to talk about his
reasons for resigning and later his refusal to swear the oath as a
lack of trust in her. More’s silence, the change in the family’s
circums tances and his unwillingness to accept financial assistance
from the clergy make Alice unhappy and bitter. While she does not
understand the motivation behind her husband’s refusal to swear
the oath, she reconciles with him because she knows he is a man
ofintegrity, and accepts that he must follow his conscience: ‘As for
understanding, I understand you’re the best man that I ever met or
am likely to; and if you go –well,God knows why I suppose’.
More’s reaction shows how much he loves her and values her
honesty and strength: ‘Why it’s a lion I married! A lion! A lion!’
Margaret (Meg) More
Margaret, Sir Thomas More’s daughter, is a lovely, gentle
girl, reserved, intelligent and, unusual for a woman at the time,
highly educated. Although she modestly cla ims to pass for a
scholar only ‘among women’, she embarrasses the King when her
Latin proves to be better than his. Where Alice is feisty and
outspoken Margaret is the peacemaker, defending her father
against Alice’s criticism and interceding in his argume nts with
Roper. The relationship between Margaret and her father is very
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94provides him with intellectual support. More has been in the habit of
confiding in Margaret, so his silence on the matter of the king’s
divorce puzzles her. Margaret understands why her father would
not want to be Lord Chancellor, and shows her support for him
when he decides to resign from the position by taking the chain of
office from around his neck. Her unspoken fear that the Act of
Succession and the oath could hold dangers for More is realised
when he is imprisoned. Although she knows he will be angry, she
takes advantage of Cromwell’s offer to allow her to visit to convince
him to swear the oath. When he dismisses her cl ever arguments
one by one she becomes desperate and resorts to hurting him by
describing how miserable she and Alice are without him. Margaret
understands her father but she questions his actions. At his
execution More acknowledges their special relationsh ip: ‘You have
long known the secrets of my heart’
William Roper
Will Roper is More’s son -in-law. In each of Roper’s scenes
he is taking a stand on some issue of conscience. Firstly he adopts
Luther’s ideas, which mak es him a heretic in the eyes of More who
consequently forbids his request for permission to marry Margaret.
However, when the King attacks the Catholic Church, Roper
changes his mind and springs to its defence, even dressing in black
and wearing a crucifix , ‘like a Spaniard’. Roper’s inconsistent
idealism contrasts with More’s steadfastness. More describes his
son-in-law’s ideals as ‘seagoing principles’ because like the tides
they are never fixed but are always changing. Unlike Roper, More
puts his faith n ot in an unknowable God but in society and the law:
‘The law Roper, the law. I know what’s legal, not what’s right’.
Roper lacks a sense of humour and has a touch of pomposity about
him–for which More teases him gently –but is basically a decent
man.
Chapuys
Chapuys is the Spanish ambassador and uncle of Queen
Catherine. He represents the interests of Spain, which opposes the
divorce between Catherine and King Henry, and is an important
man whose status warrants an attendant to assist him. Chapuys
has b een sent by the King of Spain to find out where More stands
on the matter of the divorce and to persuade him to openly oppose
it. Spain represents another quarter from which More faces
pressure. Chapuys’ diplomacy is underhand: he bribes More’s
steward, Ma tthew for information on his master, and tries to
manipulate Cromwell who recognises in the Spaniard a cleverness
similar to his own: ‘O sly! ‘Do you notice how sly he is, Rich?’ In
speaking with More, Chapuys tries to hide his true motives which
are polit ical, with flattery and references to religion. Because he is
devious himself he hears hidden meanings in what More says,
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95a good man and an influential one, and urges him to speak out
against the divorce, to be a rallying point for English opposition. He
believes wrongly –but not unreasonably –that More’s silence on
the divorce indicates support for Spain and is confused and angry
when More rejects the Spanish king’s letter as treasonous.
Chapuys’ warning to the Steward, Matthew, that: ’No man can
serve two masters’ proves to be prophetic for More when he is
eventually forced to choose between his God and his King.
Cardinal Wolsey
Cardinal Wolsey, Lord Chancellor of England, holds the
countr y’s highest ecclesiastical and political offices. With his great
wealth and power he seems for many to embody the worst abuses
in the Church. The commanding way in which Wolsey sends for
More and the fact that he intends to bypass the King’s advisory
Counc il in mediating with Rome for Henry’s divorce indicate how
much power Henry has allowed him. Wolsey is blunt: ’Myeffort’s to
secure a divorce. Have I your support or have I not?’ His motivation
is political –he is prepared to take certain ‘regrettable’ me asures
against the church, if necessary –and he is dismissive of More’s
conscience: ‘If you could just see the facts flat on, without that
moral squint; with just a little common sense, you could have been
a statesman’. After negotiations with the Pope st all, Wolsey falls
from favour with the King and More is appointed Lord Chancellor,
setting up the confrontation between More and the King which is
the play’s central theme.
8.3 THEMES
Integrity
Robert Bolt says in his Preface to the play that Thomas More
“became for me a man with an adamantine sense of his own self.
He knew w here he began and left off” (p. xii). In the play More is
the only character with such a sense of integrity. Cromwell tells
More he is amazed that he is the only one who opposes “the whole
movement of the times” (Act Two). More replies that it amazes him
too that no one else opposes the injustice going on. All the others,
including good people, yield to pressure and let their edges be
blurred by society or necessity. A man of integrity can be a problem
for others, as Chapuys, the Spanish ambassador, says when he is
unable to persuade More to support Spain: “Goodness can be a
difficulty” (Act Two). More is his own man and therefore
unpredictable. Chapuys has simplistically assumed that i fM o r ei s
against Cromwell he is for the Spanish. Thomas More’s integrity is
not a Church dogmatism, as his son -in-law Roper would like it to
be. He does not act rigidly from a set of rules as a “Catholic” or
“Englishman.” His is a supple intelligence. He tells his daughter
Margaret that God made angels for splendor and animals for
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96him wittily, in the tangle of his mind” (Act Two). Thomas More is
shown dynamically defending his integrity with h is whole heart and
mind, as in an intricate game of chess with the King. Even the King
respects More’s integrity, calling his sincerity “water in the desert”
(Act One). More is willing to risk his life to keep his own honesty: “I
must rule myself” (Act One ). He thus refutes the right of the King to
rule him in matters of conscience.
Law vs. Power
The conflict between Henry VIII and Sir Thomas More
represents a larger conflict of the times. In Bolt’s play, More stands
for civil law, while Henry stands for m onarchical power. More first of
all asserts that divine law exists and is more powerful than man’s
law, but it is mysterious and unknowable by an individual. Although
he stands up for the Church law, More doesn’t claim authority in the
matter. He says, “I’ m not God” (Act One). He recognizes limits to
the power and knowledge of the individual, including a King, who
cannot put himself at will above the law of the Church or the law of
the land he rules. Civil law has been established over the centuries
so that a person may live according to his conscience as long as he
does no harm and can walk through life safely protected from the
wrong use of power by others. In the play, the King’s laws are
shown to be arbitrary and based on his own wishes, not on the
large r good. In his Preface, Robert Bolt calls Henry “the monstrous
baby” who must have his own violent way at any cost. The laws of
religion (such as not killing another) and the civil law (such as
evidence being required for accusation of a crime) are more
objective, fair to all, and tested over time. They are reasonable as
well as ethical. If the civil law is unfair, it can be amended by
Parliament.
Henry, on the other hand, insists on absolute power with no
checks. He takes over both church and state and ex ecutes
whomever stands in his way. His decisions are not based on
reason or virtue but on his own will. Sir Thomas More articulates a
position of the future (civil rights), and Henry uses his traditional
authority to rule rather than consensus or law, thou gh both
embrace the new humanistic learning that taught the primacy of
reason. Roper accuses More: “the law’s your god” (Act One). More
denies this but says he would even give the Devil “benefit of law,
for my own safety’s sake” (Act One). More is shown to be right in ,
that all those who side with the King in hopes they will be saved are
eventually cut down by his insatiable power. More would rouse his
countrymen to defend the law that keeps them safe and gives them
their freedom and basic rights.
The Rela tivity of Point of View
Bolt makes history into a drama by showing the characters
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97the kingdom any way he wishes conflicts with More’s ethics and
moral stance. More’s willingness to go al lt h ew a yt od e f e n dh i s
values contrasts with his friend Norfolk’s caving in to threats. The
Common Man’s concern for survival makes him small -minded and
duplicitous, but he is not as blameworthy as the educated Rich,
whose ambition for high place override s his virtue. Both Wolsey
and Cromwell are crafty and unprincipled, but Wolsey cares for
England, while Cromwell is an opportunist. These different
responses to historical pressures show a wide variety of human
types that are still visible in today’s polit ics. Bolt makes the drama
contemporary by adding in the idea that it is not only philosophies
that clash but individual points of view. It is more than Catholic vs.
Protestant or England vs. Spain or rich vs. poor. Even the
Catholics —Chapuys, Roper, and Mo re—differ in the way they see
their religion. While Bolt obviously favors More’s view as the most
admirable and worthy, he makes it clear that even More recognizes
his views are his own and not meant to be a model for others. It is
when someone insists his or her views are the only “right” ones that
citizens are endangered.
More does not claim as Roper does, to prescribe right and
wrong for others, to know absolutely what God wants or means. All
through the play he is bitter about God’s vagueness: “I don’t know
where he is nor what he wants” (Act One). In the end, More only
claims that he must be true to his own conscience, but he does not
claim that he can know God’s will in the matter. He doesn’t expect
everyone to go to the Tower and die for what he beli eves. He can
only take responsibility for himself. This is a modern point of view,
the idea that everyone has a right to his or her own opinion, but that
one’s own opinion cannot be taken as an absolute. Every viewpoint
is relative, with some having more m erit than others. If More had
only been a rote defender of the Church like Roper, he would not
stand for the humanistic ideal he taught, of reasoning for oneself.
More has come to accept his religion and the law through exercise
of his own reason and consc ience. Norfolk claims that More is
giving up everything “for a theory”. More contradicts him: “what
matters to me is not whether it’s true or not but that I believe it to be
true, or rather, not that I believe it, but that Ibelieve it”. He does not
defend the Church; he defends his right to live and die by his own
point of view.
8.4 METAPHORS/SYMBOLS
The Sea and Dry Land
In his Preface to the play, Bolt informs the reader his main
metaphors are the sea and dry land, to suggest the supernatural
order vs. the human order. The sea is formless, vast, and
unpredictable. The land is security, home, order, what is known.
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98finds himself swept by his religious faith out to sea. Bolt did not
want a p urely naturalistic play, he says, and the metaphors are a
way to add scope and philosophic depth, as in a poem.
Thomas More is a home -loving man with his house and
family in Chelsea and their well -ordered ways. In addition, he is a
lawyer who believes in the law as the safeguard of the citizens:
“The law is a causeway upon which, so long as he keeps to it, a
citizen may walk safely” (Act Two). At his trial, More says to the
Court which has condemned him through a perjury, “God help the
people whose Statesm en walk your road” (Act Two). The
government should create and safeguard well -kept roads for the
people. There should be landmarks, agreement about the best way
to go and how to get there. This is what makes a civilization, and
More fervently believes in a nd lives according to the letter of the
law. He believes himself safe, because he knows the law so well
that he is sure his silence cannot be interpreted as treason.
The Common Man, who provides narration and commentary,
remarks in an early scene, “The gr eat thing’s not to get out of your
depth” (Act One). He himself is the example of this advice, for he
always has his feet on the ground. In this scene he is Matthew the
Steward ,who takes bribes from Chapuys and Rich, giving them
something they believe to be significant information about More, but
he is just playing them, and says it will be a rare day when he “can’t
touch the bottom” (Act One). The Common Man is the only one
who does not get swept away out to sea by the events of the day.
The Steward does refer, however, to More’s being “afraid of
drowning” (Act One).
Politicians are compared to boats on the ocean. Cromwell
says of More, “There’s a man who raises the gale and won’t come
out of the harbor” (Act Two). He has raised a storm of controversy
buttries to remain safe. More predicts that when Wolsey falls, “the
splash would swamp a few small boats like ours” (Act One). When
King Henry visits More at Chelsea he pilots a new warship down
the Thames, The Great Harry, literally exemplifying a threatening
ship of state bearing down on the little domestic garden.
Metaphors of the Self
Related to the water imagery for the supernatural order are
images for the conscience or self, a person’s integrity. “As a water
spaniel i s to water, so is a man to his own self” (Act Two). A water
spaniel is attracted to the water; it is his element, just as a man’s
self or soul is the element he must swim in. More explains to his
daughter that when a man takes an oath, “he’s holding his ow n self
in his own hands. Like water” (Act Two). If he opens his fingers
then, breaking the oath, he has lost his self. When Norfolk appeals
to their friendship to get More to change his mind, More says, “only
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99More identifies his essential nature with the mysterious ways of the
sea, the supernatural forces, though he tries to cling to the land as
long as he can.
Animal Metaphors
To bring out the contrast of More’s lofty i deal of conscience
and the base corruption he has to deal with, Bolt uses animal
metaphors to characterize the power struggle going on in England.
Henry’s voracious power is foreshadowed by the story Norfolk tells
to the Mores at the beginning of the play about the falcon that
stoops five hundred feet to kill a heron. The stoop was “Like an Act
of God” (Act One), “a royal stoop,” though the heron was “clever”.
The falcon is Henry VIII and the heron is Thomas More. Henry’s
sudden and deadly acts are well sym bolized by the falcon who can
attack so fast, it appears to be an act of God. Henry does see
himself as having the divine right of kings and executes all his
actions with the authority of God, such as defying the Pope and
setting up his own church.
In a l ater scene in Act Two, Cromwell says that More is a
“slippery fish,” and they need a “net with a finer mesh” to catch him.
During the last scene with his family, More calls his wife Alice “a
lion” for her courage in standing by him to the bitter end (Act T wo).
Henry calls his followers like Cromwell “jackals,” animals who eat
the leftovers, while Henry calls himself a “lion” that provides the
meat (Act One). When More is imprisoned, and The Common Man
is cast in the role of the jailer, he pleads for his lac ko fm o r a l i t yb y
saying “Better a live rat than a dead lion” (Act Two). This makes the
Common Man the rat and More the lion or noble one, though he
dies for it. The differing use of the lion symbolism points out the
subjectivity of values. Traditionally, l eaders like to be compared to
the lion, king of beasts, but rats are more plentiful, and for the
Common Man, the quantity of life rather than the quality of it is the
point.
8.5 STRUCTURE, LANGUAGE & STYLE
The play is divided into a simple two -act struc ture, with the
second act taking place some two years after the first, but with
unspecified lengths of time passing during each act. The rising
action during Act One depicts Sir Thomas as a respected man of
substance who advances in status, becoming Lord C hancellor after
Wolsey’s death, but is subject to increasing pressures in order to
support the wishes of the King in conflict with his personal
conscience. Soon after Act Two begins, however, Sir Thomas is
divested of his chains of office and begins the sl ide that ends with
his imprisonment and execution. Meanwhile, Richard Rich, who
starts off desperate for Sir Thomas to give him some sort of
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100equally ambitious Thomas Cromwell. By the play’ s conclusion he
has gained resplendent robes and the role of Attorney -General for
Wales but has experienced a concomitant fall in his moral standing,
resorting to perjury in order to achieve Sir Thomas’s ultimate
downfall. The most notable aspect of the pl ay’s style is Bolt’s
adoption of what is popularly known as the ‘alienation effect’, which
is a tr anslation of the German verfrem dung seffekt, the technique
employed by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht. The effect is
most obvious through the character o ft h eC o m m o nM a n ,w h o
emphasizes the artificiality of the play from the outset. Instead of
allowing the audience to ‘lose themselves’ in the proceedings on
stage, the Common Man’s direct address and overt adoption of
various roles forces them to remain det ached and consider the play
in a more intellectual and engaged manner. The Common Man is
intended to embody, as Bolt puts it in the preface, ‘that which is
common to us all’, and is therefore appropriate for someone who
successively plays the roles of Stew ard, Boatman, Publican, Jailer
and Headsman. Bolt uses a wide range of metaphors in the play,
many of which are associated with water. Thus, of William Roper’s
wilful obstinacy and changeable views, Sir Thomas says, ‘Now let
him think he’s going with the c urrent and he’ll turn round and start
swimming in the opposite direction’, and soon after, ‘If Wolsey fell,
the splash would swa mp a few small boats like ours .’Later, when
Roper complains that Sir Thomas’s principles are such that he
would ‘give the Devil benefit of law’ and that laws should be
dispensed with if they do not achieve the desired purpose, Sir
Thomas responds that, ‘This country’s planted thick with laws from
coast to coast … and if you cut them down … do you really think
you could stand uprig ht in th ew i n d st h a tw o u l db l o wt h e n ? ’ Al e s s
obvious feature of Bolt’s language is the way he uses repeated
lines in different contexts in order to drive home the differences in
outlook between characters. When More refuses to tell Norfolk
what his views on the King’s divorce are for fear of persecution,
Norfolk responds, ‘Thomas. This isn’t Spain, you know’, implying
that he has faith that his friend will not be ill -treated for his beliefs.
Yet, when Cromwell forces Norfolk to participate in the actions
against Sir Thomas and Norfolk angrily asks if he is using the
King’s name to threaten him, Cromwell calmly retorts, ‘My dear
Norfolk … This isn’t Spain’ The ironic repetition of Norfolk’s earlier
statement drives home the fact that England has become a cou ntry
where divergent opinions will not be tolerated.
8.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS / QUESTIONS
1.Is Sir Thomas More really a man for all seasons? If he is, then
why did he fail to weather the season of legal and theological
storm brought about by King Henry's in tention to divorce the
Queen? Discussmunotes.in

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1012."A hero's character inevitably leads him or her to conflict with
forces he cannot master" Explain how true is this claim with
respect to Thomas in A MAN FOR ALL SEASONS
3.In "A MAN FOR ALL SEASONS" why does More refuse t o
agree to the oath? What is the difference between More's
understanding of what he's doing and typical expectations of
morality and martyrdom?
4.More’s pragmatic maneuvering through society contrasts with
what More calls Roper’s ‘seagoing’ principles. Roper follows
ideals instead of his conscience or the law and More argues
that attempting to navigate high -minded ideals is akin to being
lost at the sea
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